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EPSON Stylus Photo 12700(  Z6Times New Roman Regular\X=$)L N~)*.wpl3U Z'S!..     _       "XXX\XXX8""XXdd8  f"XXX"X  SS S    ")X"XTheDrugWar'sFungal"Solution"inLatinAmerica S "XX")"AndeanSeminar"LectureSeriessponsoredbyGWUandWOLA V Friday,December8 ݌ < Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  Sx%u,  ,݌̌f  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S T   JeremyBigwood݌  T Ќf  "XXX"X    SӁ =    f"XXX"X  Sv # s S  Z  Beforestarting,IwouldliketothankCynthiaMcClintockandMariePriceofGWUand v  GinaAmatangeloofWOLAforinvitingmehere.Iwouldalsoliketothankmy \  colleague,SharonStevensonofLima,Peru,whoisnotheretoday.SharonandIhave B  beenresearchingmycoherbicidesthisyearundertheaegisofaResearch&WritingGrant (x  fromthe4# YOf  5     JohnD.andCatherineT.MacArthurFoundation. Z  6YZf  7 Z݌ ^  Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S G q   ThisafternoonIwillspeakoftherecenthistoryof"biochemical"or"biological"agents   called"mycoherbicides,fungithathavebeendesignedtoinfectandkilldrugplants,   suchascoca,poppy,andmarijuana,withaspecialemphasisontheproposeduseof f  mycoherbicidesinColombiaandtheirpossibleclandestineuseinPeruduringthe1980s L untilthepresent.q ݌ 2 Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  Sk/   Iprefertocharacterizetheactivitiesofmycoherbicidesas"biochemical"ratherthan  "biological,"becauseinallcases,mycoherbicidesattacktheirtargets,orevennontarget  organisms!plantoranimal!throughthesynthesisandsecretionoffungaltoxins,called  "mycotoxins".Thesecompounds,whichthefungusitselfisimmuneto,aresynthesized p andsecretedtoburstthecellwallsofthetargetspeciesanddissolvethecellscontents, V whicharethenabsorbedbythefungus.Thefungusthenreproducesitselfandmovesinto < thephysicalspaceofthetargetcellandstartstheprocessoveragainuntilithaskilledthe "r hostorisitselfkilled.Tosummarize,mycoherbicidesarefungilivingbiological X organismsthatactthroughthechemicalstheysecrete./ ݌ > Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  Sz'w  Inordertoprovidecontext,atthispointitwouldbeusefultotakeaquickcomparative z lookatthe4$ YOf  5     methodsusedtoeradicatedrugcrops DZ  6YZf  7 J*.O݌ `  Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S!<!<( 4 <DLX<  Thefirstmethodismanual.Inthismethod,plantsareremovedbydestroyingthem !< physically,forinstance,pullingthemupbytheroots.Thistechniquehasbeen "" successfullyusedintheUS,andbyUSfundedparapolice,paramilitaryforcesthatI # considertobemercenary,suchasUMOPARandCORAHinBoliviaandPeru $ respectively.Eventhoughtheactorsmaydisgustusbyhavingsoldthemselvestoa %  foreignpowerwithanaimtodamagingthewellbeingoftheircompatriots,themanual j&!  eradicationtheyperformcausestheleastamountofenvironmentalharm,butexposesthe P'"! eradicatortothehostilityoflocalfarmers.L݌ 6(#" Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S)%o)$  Thesecondmethodischemical.Achemicalismassproducedinalaboratory,mixedina )%# formulationwithotheradditives,andappliedtothetargetoftenbyair.Belowisabrief *%$ seriesofherbicidesusedbytheUSgovernment,startingwiththemixturethatwascalled +&%  "AgentOrange"andusedinVietnam,andendingwiththepresentdayfavorite, t,'& Glyphosatewhichwithotheradditivesisbeingusedtodaytodefoliatewideswathesof  theAmazoninSouthernColombia.D݌   f  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S"r#  Allofthesechemicalherbicideshaveknowntoxicity,rangingfromthemutagenicand "r carcinogenicbreakdownproductsofAgentOrange,totheeffectsofGlyphosateon X aquaticlifeandsoilmicroorganisms,nottomentionthecollateraldamagecausedto > nontargetplantsandanimalsbydrift.#݌  $ Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S`  ]  Below,arethemajorFusariummycotoxins,theactiveingredientsoftheFusarium `  speciesandtheprimarysubjectoftoday'slecture.݌ F  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S "  .  Theconceptbehindtheuseoftheseorganismsisthattheirsporesaretobemass  "  producedinlaboratories;thesearethenappliedoverthetargetspecies,wherethespores   germinate,spreadingtoxicmyceliumthatwillattackthetargets.Theconcept,according   totheproponentsofmycoherbicides,isthatthesefungiarespecificandwillonlyattack   thetargetstheyaredesignedfor,aconceptthathasnotbeensupportedbythescientific j  evidence.Also,allowmetoemphasizethatwhilemycoherbicidesareorganisms,living P  entities,theiractivityagainsttheirtargetsismainlychemicalproducedthroughthe 6 chemicalstheysynthesize,andtheydonotattackthroughmechanicalmeans.Aboveare l illustratedthemajorclassesofmycotoxinsfoundinFusarium..݌ R Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S;#  Whatdoweknowaboutmycotoxinsingeneral? #>$݌  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  Sj%  Most,ifnotallfungiproducemycotoxins.Thesechemicalsmaybepartofadefense j mechanismfortheorganismormaybeoffensive,orboth.Somewellknownmycotoxins P thathavebothdeleteriousandpositiveeffectsarefromergot,afungusthatcaninhabit 6 rye,whoseinfestationsandcontaminationofbreadhaveledtothepoisoningcalled"St.  AnthonysFire,"inwhichlargegroupsofintoxicatedpeoplehavedied,after  experiencinghallucinosis,andlossoffeelingintheextremities.Thiswasaparticular  problemduringthemiddleagesandwassolvedbyseparatingthepurpleblackfungal ~ sclerotiafromcereal.Infairnesstoergot,Ishouldpointoutthatinthemodernage, d mycotoxinsisolatedfromergothaveawiderangeofmedicaluses:ergotaminealleviates J migraineheadaches,andergonovinehassavedthelivesofcountlesswomenwhohave 0  takenittocontrolpostpartumhemorrhage.Sofar,therearenosuchpositiveusesof !f Fusariummycotoxins.%n%݌ !L Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S#5#*  Anotherthingweknowaboutmycotoxinsingeneralisthattheirproductionbyfungiis # verydependentonenvironmentalcircumstancesandavailablenutrientsources.Thus,it n$ isoftenpossibletotakeafungalstrainthatisknowntoproducehighamountsofagiven T%  mycotoxin,cultivateitonagivenmedia,andfindnodetectablemycotoxins.The :&!! oppositeisalsotrue.Somefungithatproducesmallamountsofmycotoxinsinthewild  'p"" canbeinducedtoproducelargeramountsorevendifferentmycotoxinsinthecontrolled (V## conditionsofalab.Thiscaveatbecomesimportantwhentryingtowadethroughthe (<$$ mycotoxicologicalliteratureinwhichatcertaintimesagivenspeciesisolatedbycertain )"%% scientistshavebeenfoundtocontaincompoundX,butotherscientistshaveonlyfound *&& compoundW,Y,andZ!Asisoftenthecaseinacademicminutiae,andespeciallyinthe +&'  worldofmycology,thesedebatescanragefordecadesuntilonesideortheotherdiesoff.*!+݌ ,'( Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SSV0  Fusariummycotoxins: V00݌ S  f  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S<x1  WhatdoweknowaboutFusariummycotoxins?Sofar,Fusariummycotoxinshavehad  anentirelynegativehistory.fSonegative,infact,thatwhenIwasworkingwith u mycotoxinsinthe1970sandearly1980s,IwaspermittedtoworkunderDEAlicense [ withpsilocybin,ergotalkaloids,andwithoutanylicensefortheverytoxicAmanita A  toxins,theGABAmimickingmycotoxins,butIwasnotpermittedtoworkwiththe ' w Fusariumtoxins.Whynot?TheFusariumtoxinswereconsideredtobeweaponsofwar!fx11݌  ] Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S F 5  AndwhatdoweknowofFusariumasagenus?Thefirstwrittendescriptionofa   FusariumrotofcorncomesfromaSpanishfriarinMexicoduringthe1600s.The   botanistLinkfirstdescribedthegenusin1809.Fusariumbecameassociatedwiththerot e  ofstoredpotatoesbyGermanscientistsinthe1850s.However,thisshouldnottobe K  confusedwithanotherrotoflivingtuberscausedbyyetanotherspeciesoffungus, 1  Phytopthera,thefungusthatcausedthegreatIrishpotatofamineduringthe1840s.5o5݌ g  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S P r8  Inthe1890s,horses,cows,andpigswerereportedaslosinghairandhoovesaftereating   FusariuminfectedgraininNebraska.Thiswasthefirstreportofthetoxicityofthe  species.VariousspeciesofFusariawerethenshowntoattackmanycrops,including o cotton,banana,sugarcane,andcereals,andevenhumans.r88݌ U Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S1:  Also,inthistimeframe,in1916,thefirstreportofFusariuminfection(Fusariosis)in 1 humanswaspublishedinanArgentinemedicalpublication,inwhichapatientsuffered  fromFusariosisofthenose!:[;݌  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S96<  4%gYOf  5     Thensomethingtrulytragichappened. =  6q=Y=f  7=ԁDuringthelastyearsoftheSecondWorldWar 9 until1949aFusariumsporotrichiodesinfestationofoverwinteredgraincausedthe o 4&YOf  5     deathofhundredsofthousandsofpeopleintheUSSR ?  6_?Ys?f  7?Ԁaftertheyatecontaminatedbread. U ThisfocusedresearchonthemycotoxicologyofFusariumspecies.Muchlater,itwas ; determinedthataseriesofchemicals,quinones,thetrichothecenemycotoxinswere ! mainlyresponsible;theseareaseriesofhighlystablecompoundsthat,unlikemany  others,arenotdegradedbyheat,suchastheheatusedinbakingbread.<R=݌  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S)!y &XB  Thetrichothecenesweresonamedbecausetheyhadbeenfirstisolatedfromthe )!y morphologicallysimilargenusTrichothecium.Trichothecenemycotoxinsandtheir "_ analogshavebeendetectedinallmembersoftheFusariumgenus,includingFusarium "E oxysporum,aswellasotherrelatedgenera.BaC݌ #+ Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  Sg% %d `E  Duringthe1950s,Sovietscientistsstudiedthecausesoftheepidemicthathadkilledoff g%  somanyoftheircompatriots.Theresultsofsomeofthisworkwerepublishedin1958in M&!   4'unYOf  5     SoilMicroorganismsandHigherPlants  %G  6FYFhef  7unG GԀbyN.A.Krasil'nikov,oftheSovietAcademy 3'"! ofSciences.ThiswastranslatedintoEnglishbytheIsraelProgramforScientific (i#" Translationsin1961.Inthiswork,KrasilnikovshowedthattheFusariummycotoxins (O$# werenotonlytheagentsresponsiblefortheRussianepidemic,butthatwhereverlarge )5%$ amountsofFusariumandhenceits4(unYOf  5     mycotoxinshadbeenfoundinthesoil Jhe  6IYIhef  7unI,subsequent *&% plantingswouldyieldpoorornoresults.Inotherwords,besidespoisoninghumanswho +'&  atetheinfectedgrain,themycotoxinsalsocontaminatedthesoil.Andsincemanyof ,'' thesetoxinsarenotverywatersoluble,andarenotsubstantiallywashedawaybyrain  water,theycankeepthegroundpoisonedforyears.`EE݌   f  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S"r M  Bytheearly1960's,duetotheinterestinthechemicalwarfarepotentialof "r trichothecenes,theUSmilitaryandothersstartedtoinvestigatethetoxinsofFusarium. X Theyf   publishedtheresultsoftheirinvestigations Nhe  ݀intothetrichothecenemycotoxins,often > outsidenormalchannelsofthescientificliterature. MxM݌  $ Ќ  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S`  ]O  WecanseethatUSgovernmentcontractedscientistsfirstrepeatedtheSovietwork `  (4)unbYOf  5     ArmyBiologicalLabsTupenevich GQhe  6PYPhef  7unU-Q);diddetection,analysis,anddecontaminationwork F  (4*unYOf  5     ArmyArmamentResearchandDevelopmentCommand Rhe  6kRYRhef  7unR);appliedtrichothecenesto , | variousmammals'skins(4+unYOf  5     ArmyMedicalResearchInstituteofInfectiousDiseases UThe  6SY Thef  7unk ;T); b  researchedprotectionagainsttheminbiologicalorchemicalwarfare(4,unYOf  5     NationalResearch H  Council Uhe  6UYUhef  7unU);measuredtrichotheceneinduced"deepnecroticulcers"onratskin(4-unYOf  5     Materials .  ResearchLabAustralia Whe  6-WYAWhef  7unoW);determinedtheLC50's(theLethalConcentrationinthe   atmosphereatwhich50%ofthetestedanimalsdie)oftrichothecenesinaerosolsinmice   (4.unZYOf  5     Ft.Detrick Yhe  6l  4:unAYOf  5     In1964,acocawiltepidemicbrokeoutintheCocaCocacocaresearchplantationona  HawaiianIsland $m  6lYlf  7i m.Duringthistime,deadplantswereremovedfromthefieldand  immediatelyreplacedwithhealthyseedsorseedlings.Manyyearslater,inthe1980's  Fusariumoxysporumwasidentifiedasthewiltorganism.Itsdispersalthroughoutthe p  researchplotseventuallyresultedintheterminationofthebreedingproject.>ll݌ V! Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S"2"Ip  Duringthe1970s,Iwasluckyenoughtohavehadtheopportunitytoworkwith4;YOf  5     Tim "2 Plowman }q  6!qY5qf  7 cqԀwhenhewasstillatHarvard.Dr.PlowmaneventuallywrotetheMonograph( # the"Bible")onthegenusErythroxylum,thegenustowhichcocabelongs.Ipp݌ $  Ќf  "XXX"X  SPlowmanknew,ofcourse,abouttheproblemsinHawaii,andhypothesizedthatthe %7!! diseasewasfungalinorigin.But,hewantedtoknowifthediseasewascausedbya &"" contaminantontheseedsandseedlingsfromLatinAmerica,orwasitsomethingthatwas '## endemictoHawaiiandthenmutatedchangedhostsandstartedtochewonCocaColas (#$ cocaplants.Atthetime,PlowmanwassendingseedsandseedlingsfromLatinAmerica )$% torestocktheplantation.In1974,hedivertedtomesomeofthesameseeds e*%&  andseedlingsthatweretobesenttoHawaiiforcultivation. K+&' B  ԍ̎      C    f"XXX"X  SS Sv  Plowmandidthistodetermineiftheseedsandseedlingsdevelopedthecocawiltdisease S whengrowninotherplacesbesidesHawaii.Allseedsandseedlingsgrewtomaturityin 9 theSanFranciscoBayArea.vw݌   f  "XXX"X  SBaseduponthefactthatalloftheseedsandseedlingsgrowninHawaiibecame X contaminatedandwilted,PlowmanhypothesizedthatthefungusinHawaiiisindigenous > toHawaiiandjustmutatedtoattackcoca,andwasnotbroughtinwiththeseedlings,as  $ someresearchersstillallegetoday.     f"XXX"X  S C  S3z  ThereasonthatthisisimportantisthatproponentsofFusariumliketobelievethatthe  C diseasewasPeruvianinoriginthatitcameontheseedstoHawaiiandtherefore  ) couldbereappliedintheAmazonbasinasa"natural,local"disease,thuscircumventing    anyargumentsthatitsimportationfromtheUSwouldbeinviolationoflawsregulating   theimportationofpathogens.3zz݌   Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  Sg  }  Alsointhemid1970sintheBayArea,4<qYOf  5     A.H.McCainandD.C.Hildebrand (~  6}Y}f  7a~ԀofU.C. g  BerkeleywereworkingwithanotherstrainofFusariumoxysporumasamycoherbicide M  againstCannabisfundedbytheDEA.Andindeed,atthetimetherewasspeculationin 3 botanicalandmycologicalcirclesthatFusariumoxysporumwasalsoresponsibleforthe  epidemicinHawaii.TheCannabisworkprovedtobeinconclusive,andbecauseofthe  Paraquatscareatthetimetheworkwasphasedout,onlytobetakenuplaterbyother  scientists.}}݌ { Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SWā  Althoughtheydenyit,by1983atthelatest,theCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)was W fundingresearchonFusariumandcoca,inbothHawaiiandPeru.CIAcontracted = scientistsisolatedFusariumoxysporumfromcoca.Whatelsedidtheydo?Wedonot # know.Indeed,determininghowfartheygotonthisprojecthasbeenoneofthemore   difficultaspectsofthisinvestigation.Orweretheyalsoabletoreproduceitsspores,  comeupwithanapplicationformulationandapplyitinPeru?CIAhasnotbeen  forthcoming,eitherthroughtheFOIAorduringinterviewsoftheirpressofficers.ā/݌ k Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SG  4=YOf  5     In1984 u   6Y- f  7[,aFusariumepidemicstartedinPeru,accordingtoDavidSands,thescientist G wholaterrepeatedtheCIAsclandestineworkopenlyfortheAgriculturalResearch - ServiceoftheUSDA[photo].SandsandotherssaythattheepidemicinPeruwas   "natural."Again,theveryyearaftermysourcesplacetheCIApaidscientistswith ! FusariumandcocainHawaiiandPeru,anepidemicstartsintheHuallagaValley!An " amazingcoincidence!݌ u# Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S%Q $؉  By1986,theAgriculturalResearchServiceoftheUSDAwasopenlydeveloping %Q  biologicalagentstokillcoca,includingmothsandfungus.TheUSDA/ARSprogramwas %7!! torepeattheclandestineworkoftheCIA,"legitimizing"itsothatitwouldnolongerbe &"" consideredclandestine,andcouldbeopenlyCongressionallyfundedinthefuture.؉C݌ '## Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S?)$(<$`  By1987,thefirstPeruvianpressreportsdocumentedthatsomethingwasattackingthe ?)$$ cocaintheUpperHuallagaValley.Whatitwas,theydidnotknowatthetime.`ˌ݌ %*u%% Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S+'^+&"  Alsoin1987,USDA/ARStookovertheHawaiiansite.Duringthenextyear,Sands +'& isolatedastrainofFusariumoxysporumwhichhecalled"4>&YOf  5     EN4    6PYd f  7"fromE.novogranatense ,'' growinginHawaii.Thefactthatitwasfirstisolatedfromaspeciesotherthan }-(( Erythroxylumcocaillustratessomeoftheproblemsofmycoherbicideselectivity.  Accordingtotheirproponents,mycoherbicidalstrains,or"formaespecialis"ofFusarium  oxysporumwillonlyattackcertainspeciesofplants,andthiscitedusedas"evidence"of | theirsafety,althoughinBritishstudiesusingEN4,itattacked4?MYOf  5     otherspeciesofplants b quiteunrelatedtococa    6Y f  7HԒ."݌ H Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S $ b  BecausethisstrainwasisolatedfromE.novogranatenseandnotE.coca,somescientists  $ developedanentirelynovelandunheardofconceptbasedentirelyonwishfulthinking:to   wit,thatthismycoherbicideis"4@4YOf  5     genusspecific P   6Y f  76,"insteadof"speciesspecific."However,   thereareovertwohundredspeciesofcocaatrisk,andoftheseonlyfourproducecocaine   inamountslargeenoughforextraction.Someoftheseotherspecieshavemedicinaland l   otheruses.Thus,bythescientistsown"genusspecific"definition,theEN4strain R  wouldalsoattackallofthese!So,itcouldnotbeconsideredtobesospecific!b͔݌ 8  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S q d  By1989,thescientistsresearchingFusariumknewabouttheproblemofFusariumin   immunocompromisedsubjects.InalettertoDEAonMarch10,1989,oneofthemstates:   "4AwYOf  5     thisfungusisonlyaprobleminimmunocompromisedpatients. (   6̚Y f  7 F"Fusarium,notjustthe   mycotoxinsitproducescanbeverydangerousandinfectimmunocompromised v animals,includinghumans.Andhowdowedefine"immunocompromised?"AIDS \ patients,certainly,butalsoundernourishedpeople,evenpeoplewithbadcolds,4B YOf  5     and B definitelypeoplefleeingenemiesinawartheColombiansituation    6aYu f  7 .Allofthesecould (x riskbecominginfectedifsaturatedwiththeconstantlymutatingfungusunderthose ^ conditions.Eveninfirstworldhospitals,immunocompromisedpatientswithFusarium D infectionshavealessthan4C |YOf  5     50%chanceofsurvival K   6Y f  7 1.Onemedicalpaperreads:"4D YOf  5     Fusarium    6;YOXf  7 !} * 4E 5YOf  5     inthefoot:Removethefoot! ΢X  6rYXf  7 Q"dϙ݌  Ќf  "XXX"X  SFromMarchtoOctober,1989,thecounternarcotics"FireBase"withairstripatSanta I LucawasbuiltinthePeruvianUpperHuallagaValley,allowingentryoflargeresupply / aircraft.USfundedantidrugoperationshadbeenpreviouslybasedinthetownofTingo  Mara,inthesouthernpartoftheUpperHuallagaValleyorpossiblythroughalarge  PalmOilplantationnearTocache.Atthesametime,theUSstartedachemicalherbicide  testinthesamegeneralarea,workingwiththechemicalherbicides4F YO  5     Tebuthiuronand w Hexazinone ֦X  6YX  7 ̦,andperhapsotherthings.Theseherbicidesweresprayedfromplaneswith ]  accompanyinghelicopters.Severalchemicalherbicideskilloffcertainfungithatkeep C! pathogenicfungilikeFusariumincheck.Sotheapplicationofthesechemicalherbicides )"y wouldhavehelpedthespreadoftheFusariumepidemic. #_  |(,T|Dl 4\$ L t  < d  , T |   f"XXX"X  SH$#E S۩  By1989,Peruviancampesinosbegancomplainingabouthelicoptersandplanesspraying H$! something,afterwhichtheircropsdie.Thesecomplaintscontinuetothepresent.This .%~ " wasnotunnoticedbytheUSEmbassyinLima.Manyofthesecomplaintsendedupas &d!# reportscabledfromtheUSEmbassytoWashington,DC.Herearesomeexamples:۩\݌ &J"$ Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S(#3(# X X|4(4\$ L t  < d  , T |  D l 4 \ $L(v  1990"INTHELASTWEEKREPORTSHAVEBEENCIRCULATING (#% OFAGREENFUNGUSATTACKINGPLANTS(COCAINCLUDED) l)$& INTHEUHV.WEHAVEBEENTOLDTHATTHEU.S.ISBEING R*%' FINGEREDASTHECULPRITINSOMECIRCLES.MOREONTHIS 8+&(  LATER.."1990LIMA18575DOS/JBv݌ ,n') Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SSx  1993InadebriefingoftheUSfundedPeruvianNationalCoordinatorfor S  HumanRights(Coordinadora)abouttheir1993AnnualTriptoPerus 9 HuallagaValleyJungleRegion"THEDELEGATIONWASSTRUCK,  HOWEVER,BYTHEDEVASTATIONCAUSEDBYTHEFUNGUS  PLAGUETHATISWITHERINGCOCACROPS.THEYWERE  ASSAILEDATALMOSTEVERYSTOPWITHACCOUNTSOFU.S.   DEAAIRPLANESSPREADING"FUNGUSPODS"OVERTHECOCA g  FIELDS....93LIMA08060DOS/JB.x݌ M  Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S ) Ȳ  1996February1996:APeruMonthlyNarcoticsReportobtainedthrough  ) theFreedomofInformationAct,undertheheading"PlantDisease    AttacksCoca,"states:Meanwhile,reportedly3000farmersinthe   TingoMariaandLeonicioPradoarea,...havehadtoscratchfor   othermeansofearningaliving,includingpanningforgold, q  whenaplantdisease,"secaseca",whichhadpreviouslyattacked W  cocaplantsbrokeoutagaininalternatecropsplantedin =  formercocabeds.[StateDepartmentJBFOIAresponse#199804417]Ȳ3݌ #s Ќf  "XXX"X  X X|(,T|Dl 4\$ L t  < d  , T | 44(  f"XXX"X  S\  Lastsummer,mycolleague,investigativereporterandlongtimeresidentofLima,Peru,  SharonStevensonandIwenttotheHuallagatoinvestigatethesereports.Shehadwritten  thefirstarticleonthesereportsfortheMiamiHeraldin1991,breakingnewground. { WhereverwewentintheHuallaga,wewereimmediatelybarragedwithdozensofreports a ofhelicopterssprayingcocafields,atwhichpoint,cocaandneighboringplantsdied. G Thereweresomanyreports,thatthishadtobetrue,ordidit?q݌ -} Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S fo  Inthe1980sandearly1990s,IhadspentsixyearscoveringtheSalvadoranconflict.   Manyeyewitnessreportsconcerningaviationhadprovedtobeuntruethere.Onevery  goodexampleisthatoftheA37planethatisfittedwithbombsandmultibarrelled  "miniguns"thatfireextremelyrapidly,andmakeadistinctivenoiselikeawoundedcow k wailing.InElSalvadortheseplanesusedtodivefiringtheirminigunsatagiventarget. Q However,inspiteofthis,manypeasantsusedtobelievethattheplanesmachineguns 7 extrudedfromitsrear.Thatiswhy,theyreasoned,thatoneheardthenoiseofthe  m machinegunsfiringaftertheplanehadpulledoutofitsdiveandwasswoopingupwards. !S Deadwrong!Therealreasonwasthatsoundtravelsmoreslowlythanlight,andwhat !9 theyperceivedwasanillusion!Thiscaveatwasstronglyinmindwhenanalyzingthe " Peruviansituation.oں݌ #  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SA% $>   Reportsofhelicopterssprayingawhitishtannishbrownishdustwhenhoveringovercoca A% ! fieldswereveryinterestinginlightofmySalvadoranexperience.ItistruethatCORAH, '&w!" theUSfunded,practicallymercenary,anticocaandpoppypolicewouldoftensurveil  ']"# cocafieldsfromhelicoptersbyhoveringoverthefields.Thiswouldraisemuchdustand 'C#$ detritus,simulatingwhatappearedtopeasantsasspraying.Noneofthepeasants ()$% describedhelicopterswithfixedsprayingdeviceshangingbelowthem,andmanystated )%& thattheythoughtpeopleinsidethehelicoptersweremanuallythrowingoutsomething *%'  whileithoveredsomethingnobodywoulddowithatoxicherbicide.݌ +&( Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SS  Andalso,inthecaseofPeru,thereHADbeenaUSsprayprogramusingchemical S  herbicidesthathadlastedayearinalimitedareaaroundaplacecalled"4GYOf  5     LaMorada   6,Y@f  7 n"(4H YOf  5     see 9 map   6OYcf  7P)intheUpperHuallagaValley.Thisinvolvedf   TebuthiuronandHexazinone   andwho  knowswhatelse,butwasnormallyappliedbysmallcropdustingplanes,oftenwhile  helicoptershoveredprotectingtheperimeters.Thatcouldhaveexplainedsome,butnot  allofthereports.T݌   Ќ  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S ]   Now,infairness,IshouldsaythatmycolleagueSharonStevensonbelieves,asdomany  ] others,includingPeruviangovernmentofficials,thatanherbicidewasbeingandstillis  C beingaeriallysprayedinPeruandthatitwassprayedformanyyears.Peoplewho  ) believethishavestrongargumentsandaconsiderableamountofasyetunanalyzed    physicalevidence.+݌   Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S1 .   MypositionisthatifFusariumwasappliedinPeru,itwasdonesosecretlybytheCIAin 1  theearlyandmid1980's,andhassincespread.Ihavenohardinformationonwhether g  otherthingshavebeensprayedsincetheUSsprayingtestprogramceased,but,Imust M  recognizethatitispossible.Whiletherearesamplestosubstantiatetheseallegations, 3 theirclarificationwouldrequiretwofullsizedgrantsoneforbotanicaland  mycologicalinvestigation,andtheotherfortheanalysisofthemanysamplescollected  bycampesinosandothers.Suchworkneedstobedone,butforlackoffundingwill  probablynotbedone,theresultbeingthatwewillneverknow.݌ { Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SW  However,thereisnodoubtthattherewasahugeFusariumepidemicintheHuallaga,and W whateveritssource,andweshouldstudyittodeterminewhatwouldhappenifFusarium = weretobeappliedinotherplaces.WhatarethelessonsoftheHuallagaFusarium # epidemic?݌   Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SEB  Thefirstlessonisabout"nonselectivity".WeheardrepeatedlythatwhenFusarium E attackscoca,italsoattacksotherplants.Themanyreportsofothernearbyplantsbeing +{ affectedwereverydisturbing.Thesereportscamefromsomanysources,includingsome a verycompetentagronomists,thattheycannotbediscarded.r݌ G Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S 0   AfterthePeruvianepidemic,almosteverybodyreportedwhatIcallthe"sicksoil   syndrome".Farmersandagronomistssaidthatthesoildidnotproducelikeitusedto, i! thatitwas"poisoned".ThisisveryreminiscentofwhattheSovietscientistKrasilnikov O" reportedinthesoilsaftertheRussianFusariumepidemic,andmaybeduetoan 5# excessiveamountof4I9 YOf  5     residualmycotoxinsfromtheepidemic .  6Yf  7}.Thesemaytakeseveral $k yearstodissipate.݌ %Q  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S&!:&!  Duringthelate1980s,PeruvianinvestigatorEnriqueArvalofinisheda6month &!! investigationofthefungusfortheUpperHuallagaAgrarianCooperativeinUchiza,and s'"" lateraseriesofotherresearchfundedbyUSDAandthe"Peruvian"governmentagency, Y(## CORAH(actuallycompletelybeholdentotheUS). *fԀ f*HewrotethattheHuallagaFusarium ?)$$ attackedupto70%ofthecocaplotsinsomeareas.Healsonotedthatitattackedother %*u%% plants.Heandhiscolleaguesfollowedtheepidemicscourse,andworkedrather  +[&& secretivelyattheJungleUniversityinTingoMara,Peru,whicheventuallyledtohim +A'' beingrunoutoftown,chargedbythelocalfarmerswithspreadingtheepidemic,and ,'(( rescuedbytheUSEmbassy,whichprovidedaplaneandpaidformovingexpenses.-݌ - )) Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SS~  OneofthemoreinterestingexperimentsthattheArvaloteamdid,hisformerstudent S andcolleagueOscarCabezastoldus, *fԀ f*wastoextractFusariummycotoxinsasafraction 9 fromthecocakillingstrainofFusariumoxysporumandapplytheseindifferentdosage  levelstovariousplants,cocaandnoncoca.Asalessoninthepotencyofthese  mycotoxins,alloftheplantsthatreceivedthisaqueousmycotoxinfractiondied,proving  thattheFusariummycotoxinsfromatleastoneofthecocakillingstrainsarenon   specifictheywillkillorimpedethegrowthofmanyplants,notjustthetargetplant. g  Apparently,USDAshowednointerestinpublishingthisdata.~݌ M  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S )   OnJune2,1991,the4J YOf  5     MiamiHerald ive  6zYivef  7KԀpublishedSharonStevenson'sarticleentitled:"Peru  ) farmersblameU.S.forcocakillingfungus."ThiswasthefirstarticleinthenonPeruvian    pressontheissueofFusariuminPeru.C݌   Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S1 .   ACongressionaldocumenttitledthe"PotentialforBiologicalControlofCoca"was 1  printedinNovemberof1991.Togivesomeideaofthepoliticsoftheresearchers,Dr. g  DavidRosen,ProfofEntomology,oftheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem,Israelargues:r݌ M  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S6.  "Finally,effortsshouldbemadetopersuadelocalpopulationstoabandoncocachewing  asawayoflife."ThisanticocaattitudeonthepartofUS,British,andIsraeli o researchers,andgovernmentagentsiscorrectlyperceivedasculturalgenocideby U Andeanresidents.Isthistherealendgoalofthesegovernments,includingours?.݌ ; Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  St  Inthespringof1998,the4KUYOf  5     DrugWar'sFungalSolution ive  6iY}ivef  7A4LAYOf  5     ? ive  6Yivef  7ԀwaspublishedbyJimHogshire  inCovertActionQuarterly.ThisgroundbreakingarticlefromCAQ(editedbySanho  Tree)wasconsideredsuchathreattotheestablishedorderthatONDCPgaveDavid  Sandsacopy,andSandswroteuparejoindertoit,whichtheONDCPcirculated.While y theHogshirearticlewasmistakenaboutageneticallyengineeredfungalproduct,itwas _ correctabouttheintentoftheUSgovernmentsplanstousemycoherbicides.,݌ E Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S!~U  1998broughtthepassageofSenatebillS.2522,theWesternHemisphereDrug ! EliminationAct,authorizing$23millionforthreeyear"MasterPlanforMycoherbicides  toControlNarcoticCrops."Ayearlater,"PlanColombia"isframed,largelythrough  StateDepartmentresponsetothe4MYOf  5     manylettersfromtheRightontheHilltothe   Executive ive  65YIivef  7oxM w.ThereisnoevidenceforthemythbeingfoistedbytheStateDepartmentthat i! theplanwasColombianinorigin.AnintegralpartofPlanColombiaisthatthe O" Colombianswouldusemycoherbicides,thiswastiedto$1.6billioninemergencybailout 5# fundsforthe"PlanColombia"antidrug/counterinsurgencystrategy.Itwasasimpledeal: $k ColombiausesmycoherbicidesandwouldberewardedwithUSfunds.U݌ %Q  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S&!:&!  TheUSscientist,Dr.DavidSands,whohadearlierisolatedstrainEN4fromcocaforthe &!! USDA,andnowwithhisowncompany,Ag/BioCon,witharetired4NoxhYOf  5     AirForceGeneral ive  6%Y9ivef  7ox!gԀat s'"" thehelm,startedtosellselectedCongressmentheconceptofusinghiscompanyto Y(## supplytheFusariumforColombia.NodoubttheseveralmilliondollarsthatPlan ?)$$ Colombiawasofferingtopayforthemycoherbicidedevelopmentandapplicationwasa %*u%% factorinthecreationofthiscompany.Y݌  +[&& Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S,'D,';  Inthespringof1999,theUSdecidedthatitwouldlookbetterforUSpolicyifthe4OoxR YOf  5     UN ,'' handledthemycoherbicideprograminColombia vive  6Y.ivef  7ox_\.ThefirstUSapproachwasthroughthe }-(( UnitedNationsDrugControlProgram(UNDCP)inwhich4PoxyYOf  5     theygotUNDCPtoproposea  projecttoestablisharesearchstation Bive  6Yivef  7ox|(Ԁtoconductfieldtrialsforeventuallargescale  applicationofthefungus.AlthoughtheUNrepresentativeinColombia,KlausNyholm, | saidthedraftagreementwas"notwhattheColombianswant...ItwasanAmerican b interest...itwasn'tmyidea,"itcertainlyreflectedwhattheUSStateDepartmentwanted. H Theproposedagreementturnedoverresultsofatleast12yearsofmycoherbicide . ~ researchbytheUSDepartmentofAgriculture'sAgriculturalResearchService(ARS).  d TheagreementopenlytookpoliticalcoverundertheUNumbrella.AMay1999Action  J RequestbySecretaryofStateMadeleineAlbrightpushedtheUNDCPtogetother  0 countriestoanteup"inordertoavoidaperceptionthatthisissolelya[USgovernment]    initiative,"inaverysimilar,andequallyunsuccessfulUSploytofoistalargepartof    PlanColombiafundingontheEuropeanCommunityseveralmonthslater.;݌   Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  Sn    ThereweremanytroublingaspectstotheUNproposal.ItmaintainedthatSandsstrain n  ofEN4alreadyexistedinColombia,whichisconvenientsinceintroducingaforeign T  pathogentothecountrycouldpresentaproblemunderinternationallaw.UN :  representativeNyholm,however,saidtherewasnoEN4inColombia,andtherewasno   evidenceofanyFusariumepidemiconcocathere.TheUNproposaladmittedthatfungus  development,largescaleproduction,storage,andapplicationtechniquesforFusarium  alreadyexist;andnow,itsaid,allthatwasneededwere"largescale"fieldtrialsto  comparedifferentformulationsandapplicationrates,andassesstheenvironmental h impact.Yetitdidn'tspecifyhowtheywouldhavemeasuredthesafetyofthesetrials. N Nowhereinthedraftisanynoninvolvedmonitorestablishedtooverseeresearchand 4 developmentinColombia.n݌ j Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SSK  ThisisnosmallmatterinColombia,hometotheworld'ssecondmostdiversebiosystem  Єonethatisuniquelyvulnerabletothepotentialthreatposedbythemassivesprayingof  atoxic,mutativefungusinvastswathesofjunglecharacterizedbyverysensitiveand r poorsoil.K݌ X Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S4   Inthespringandsummerof1999,SandsreceivednationwideattentionforAg/BioCon, 4 whenhealongwithColonelJimMcDonough,aformertopaidetoUSdrugczar  GeneralMcCaffrey,whohadtakenanewjobasFlorida'stopdrugofficialtriedtosell   anotherstrainofFusariumoxysporumtocontrolFlorida'sburgeoningmarijuana ! industry.Theconceptwasnotwellreceived,asFloridahasahistoryofimported |" organismstakingovertheenvironment.DavidStruhs,theheadofFlorida'sDepartment b#  ofEnvironmentalProtection,reactedwithastronglycautionarylettersaying:"Fusarium H$! speciesarecapableofevolvingrapidly...Mutagenicityisbyfarthemostdisturbing .%~ " factorinattemptingtouseaFusariumspeciesasabioherbicide.Itisdifficult,ifnot &d!# impossible,tocontrolthespreadofFusariumspecies.Themutatedfungicancause &J"$ diseaseinalargenumberofcrops,includingtomatoes,peppers,flowers,cornandvines, '0#% andarenormallyconsideredathreattofarmersasapest,ratherthanasapesticide. ($& Fusariumspeciesaremoreactiveinwarmsoilsandcanstayresidentinthesoilforyears. )$' TheirlongevityandenhancedactivityunderFloridaconditionsareofconcern,asthis *%(  couldleadtoanincreasedriskofmutagenicity."  ݌ x+&) Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SS  Anditisthisabilitytomutatethatcausessomuchconcern.Promotersofmycoherbicides S  statethataformaspecialis󀄀oraspecialformofthefunguscanonlyattackacertain 9 speciesorinthecaseofthisone,acertaingenus.But,hereistherub:ifthesameforma  specialisorganismmutatesandattacksanotherspeciesorgenus,itbecomesanother  formaspecialis(itsnamejustchanges),eventhoughitisthesameorganism,just  attackingadifferentplant.>݌   Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S ] )  Andthereisanotherruleofthumbinmycologythatshouldbetakenintoaccountby  ] thosewhowouldconsiderapplyingmassivedosesofFusariumorothermycoherbicides  C towideswathesofourplanet:themorefungalmaterialapplied,thegreaterthelevelof  ) mutation!)݌    Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SK H   Tobefair,Ishouldalsomentionthatmostmutationsgonowheretheyaredeadends,it K  isonlythe.1%thatareaggressivethatneedconcernus.݌ 1  Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S j 2  Butitisnotonlymutationthatisaproblem.FusariumcanabsorbsnippetsofDNAfrom   otherorganisms.Thesearecalledtransposonsandcouldbeusedtosynthesizenovel   mycotoxinsorunpredictablychangethebehaviorofthefungus.2݌  Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SeT  HavingbeenrebuffedbythestateofFloridamainlyonthemutationissuefailingeven e toconvincethestateauthoritiestoinitiateasimpleexperimentinaquarantinedtestsite, K Dr.SandsandhissmallcompanyapparentlysethissightsonColombia.T݌ 1 Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  Smj  January2000:SharonandIreceivedourResearch&Writinggrantfromthe4QoxUYOf  5     JohnD.& m CatherineT.MacArthurFoundation ade  6WYkbyf  7ed9,whichwehadappliedforayearearlier.Atthetime, S anNGOcalledtheSunshineProjectappearedandstartedtolobbyonthisissue.݌ 9 Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  Sr   Aroundthistime,NGOsopposedtomycoherbicidesstartedtousethemisnomer"Agent  Green"formycoherbicidesingeneral.Unfortunately,"4RedzYOf  5     AgentGreen @"by  6!Y!byf  7ed~&""wasthenameofa  realherbicideappliedinVietnambeforeAgentOrangecameintouse.Assuch,theuseof  thistermmuddiesthewater. '!݌ w Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S S-$  Throughhis4Sed YOf  5     Congressionalconnections %by  6$Y$byf  7edd%,Dr.SandsarrangedaJanuary,2000facetoface  S meetingwithPresidentAndrsPastranainWashington.Justashehadsoldtheconceptto  9 the4TedYOf  5     Congressmen 'by  6&Y&byf  7edP &Ԁ!whoseaidescouldnotcorrectlypronouncetheword"mycoherbicide" ! anddefinitelynot"Fusariumoxysporum"!soldPastranaonit.Pastranathensetup " meetingstoclinchthedealinColombia.-$$݌ # Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S'%w $$ (5)  ColombianEnvironmentalViceMinisterClaudiaMartnezwasorderedbythe '%w  ColombianambassadorinWashingtontoreceiveDr.Sandsasthevicepresidentof  &]! Ag/BioCon,acompanythathehadhopedtomarketthefungus.InColombia,heseemed &C"  tobemoreappropriatelyclassifiedasafreelancebusinessman,hawkinghiscompany's ')#! versionofafullydevelopedfungusfieldreadyfor"4UedYOf  5     precisiondeliveryfromhigh ($" altitude ,by  6+Y+byf  7edN+"applicationbylargeC130cargoplanesasthefollowingillustration,fromhis )$# literature,shows. *fԀ f*Ԁ5))݌ *%$ Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S,g'+'.  ThisonlyfrightenedtheColombiansmore.Onescientistwhowaspresentatthemeeting ,g'% saidthatthisremindedhimof"Dr.Strangelove."Indeed,whenonelooksatwhatthisis! ,M(& grassseed!onewondershowfarandwidemigratorybirdswoulddistributeit.Birds  migratefromColombiatotheUSthroughthetargetarea.And,whatoftheeffectson  thesebirds?TwoColombianscientistswhoattendedSands'Bogotpresentationsaidhe | firstpresentedhimselfonlyasascientist,notmentioningAg/BioCon.Whenaskedabout b aerialapplication,theysaidhegotflusteredseeingtheyalreadyhadhissalesliterature. H Hisgoalseemedtobetofindfourhectaresanywheretouseforafieldtrial.TheState . ~ DepartmenthereinWashingtonwaslessthanpleasedathisfreelancingastheycorrectly  d thoughtitwouldblowtheirownUNDCP"cover"program...݌  J Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S 3 !3  IshouldpointoutherethatIhaveaskedUSDAforasampleoftheEN4strainwhich   wastobeusedtoinundatesouthernColombia.USDAwouldnotgiveittome,stating l   thatonlyan"institution"couldreceiveit.Ifitissosafe,whycantanyonebeableto R  receiveit?!33݌ 8  Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S q y5  InMarchof2000,4Vim YOf  5     Rep.BenjaminGilman,RNY,tackedonanamendment q6by  66Y)6byf  7imW6Ԁtothe   pendingaidbillrequiringPresidentClintontocertifythattheColombiangovernment   "hasagreedtoandisimplementingastrategytoeliminateColombia'stotalcocaand   opiumpoppyproduction"using,amongothermeans"tested,environmentallysafe v mycoherbicides."ArmtwistingbytheUSCongresstomakeColombiausethefungus \ evenbeforeithasbeentestedforenvironmentalandhumansafetyraisesthefundamental B issueofinformedconsentbytheColombianpeople.Theprogramcouldeasilybe (x construedashavinganonpeacefulpurposeafterall,thereisawarinColombia,thus ^ contraveningtheinternationalBiologicalWeaponsConventionandmorphingitfrom D "biocontrol"into"biowarfare."WhileboththeUSandUNstridentlyobjecttothelatter * term,thesecrecysurroundingtheprojectthelackofindependentmonitoringoftheUS  fungusdevelopment,thelackofmediaexposuretotheproject,andtheclassifiednature  ofthedevelopmentprograminitsearlyyearsleaveseriousquestionsunanswered.y55݌  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  Sh<  WhenSharonStevensonandIvisitedColombiainlateMarchtoearlyApril,2000,the h UNproposalhadalreadylandedintheMinistryofEnvironment,whichwastoapprove N itsuse.Atameetingwithrankingofficials,however,itbecameclearthattheMinistry 4 hadlittleinformationtogooninmakingtheirdecision.Theviceministerofthe  environmentandheraides,gatheredaroundtheconferencetable,wereaskingusto   supplythemwithinformation.NeithertheUSgovernmentnortheUNagencypushing ! theplanhadgiventheMinistrythedetaileddocumentationavailableonthegenesisand |" developmentofFusariumoxysporumthattheywouldneedtohelpdecideifitwassafeto b#  apply.MinistrystafferswerereducedtotryingtocullinformationfromtheInternet. H$! WhattheyhadfoundtherewasevidencethatFusariumoxysporumcouldmutatetoattack .%~ " otherplantsandcouldbedangeroustoanimalandhumanhealth.<4=݌ &d!# Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S'"M'"1B  Inresponsetothepressures,theMinistryofEnvironmentcameupwithaseriesofthree '"$ counterproposal,callingforbacktobasicresearchon"nativemicroorganismswith (#% biocontrolpotential"inthecocazones.Thefinalproposalruledouttheuseofthe l)$& unpredictableanddangerousFusariumasabiocontrolagent.AsoneUSGofficialsaid: R*%' "They'lljuststudythewholethingtodeath...Theywon'tcomeupwithanything...atbest, 8+&(  somegoodsciencewillcomeoutofit."1BB݌ ,n') Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SSE  Duringthefirstmonthsof2000,aUSNobellaureate(whohasaskedtoremain S  unnamed)wroteBillClintonraisingconcernsabouttherelationshipbetween 9 mycoherbicidesandbiologicalwarfare,anditsimplicationsinForeignPolicy.EE݌  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S[XG  June,2000:PlanColombiapassesSenate.Houselanguagewinsoutoverthemore [ environmentallyfriendlySenatelanguage.Atthispointitlookslikethemycoherbicide A  programis"on"forColombia.G H݌ ' w Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S ` I  But,alsolastJune,mycoherbicideswerethesubjectofatleasttwoNationalSecurity   Council(NSC)meetingshereinDC,promptedbyalettertoClintonbytheUSNobel   laureatewementionedearlier.Concernwasraisedbecausemycoherbicideswouldbe   viewedinsomequartersasbiologicalwarfare,andtherewasfearofretaliation.Not e  muchlater,decisionsweremadetoterminatetheUSpressurefortheFusariumproject K  forColombia.IJ݌ 1  Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S j L  TheBBCinterviewedRandBeersandDr.DavidSandshereinWashington,duringmid   August,2000.HerearesomeselectionsfromtheSandsinterview:L,M݌   Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  S/, X X44rN  SANDS:ThisfungusistheclosestthingI'veeverseentoasilverbullet... / Ihaveseenittakeout99%ofplantsinafield.Ithinkthat'sincredibleand e Ithinkpeopleshouldknowthatthistechnologyexists...Thiswouldbea K greenkindofwarfare...rNO݌ 1 Ќf  "XXX"X      f"XXX"X  SmjP  BBC:Okay,butwe'retalkingsemanticshere.Youcallitgreenwarfare. m Otherpeoplecallitbiologicalwarfare.Thatissemanticallycorrect,itis S biologicalwarfare.PYQ݌ 9 Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SrR  SANDS:Thatcanberight.It'sbiologicalwarfareorgreenwarfare.Ijust  wantyoutounderstandmyopinionisit'sagoodthingifit'sdoneto  eradicatesomethingthattheentireworldfeelsisnoxious.R'S݌  Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  SmT  BBC:Whathappensifconsentisnotforthcoming...Iputtoyoua m hypotheticalyounevergetconsentwhatshouldhappenthen?TU݌  S Ќf  "XXX"X    f"XXX"X  S!