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EPSON Stylus Photo 127 (Copy 3)0(  Z6Times New Roman Regular\X,L Xl,*.wpl3U Z'S!..     _       "XwXX\XXX8"w"XXdd8  f"XwXX"Xw  SS S    "AX"Xw TheDrugWar'sFungal"Solution"intheAmazon݌ S Ќf  "XwX"A     sTheSocietyfortheAnthropologyoflowlandSouthAmerica(SALSA) Y Annapolis,Maryland,June8,2002  JeremyBigwood  T  s SӁ  f"XwXX"Xw  S \  S   sfBeforestarting,IwouldliketothankDonPollockforinvitingmehere.Acoupleof   yearsagomyselfandSharonStevensonwereluckyenoughtoreceiveagrantfromthe   4# YO s  5   s  s   sJohnD.andCatherineT.MacArthurFoundation. Z s s  6#Y7Z s s  7 XeԀInordertostudy_a_Ԁinterestingand {  sometimesclandestineresearchprojectthatispresentlyonhold,butwhichcouldhave, a  andindeedstillcouldstillhaveanegativeeffectonthebiotauntheAmazonianregions G  ofColombia,Ecuador,Peru,BoliviaandBrazil.!݌ -}  Ќ s  "XwXX"Xw   s    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS fk  Iamspeakingoftherecentplanneddeploymentof"biochemical"or"biological"agents    called"mycoherbicides,fungithathavebeendesignedtoinfectandkilldrugplants,  suchascoca,poppy,andmarijuana,withaspecialemphasisontheproposeduseof  mycoherbicidesinColombiain2000,andtheirpossibleclandestineuseinPeruduring k the1980sandthepresentsituation.k݌ Q Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS-G   So,tostartwithIshoulddescribewhatmycoherbicidesare.Theyarerustormoldlike - fungithatattackmainlyplants,althoughweshallseethattheycanalsoattackotherbiota  includingmammals.G ݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  Iprefertocharacterizetheactivitiesofmycoherbicidesas"biochemical"ratherthan 2 "biological,"becauseinallcases,mycoherbicidesattacktheirtargets,orevennontarget  organisms!plantoranimal!throughthesynthesisandsecretionoffungaltoxins,called  "mycotoxins".Thesecompounds,whichthefungusitselfisimmuneto,aresynthesized  andsecretedtoburstthecellwallsofthetargetspeciesanddissolvethecellscontents, z whicharethenabsorbedbythefungus.Thefungusthenreproducesitselfandmovesinto `  thephysicalspaceofthetargetcellandstartstheprocessoveragainuntilithaskilledthe F! hostorisitselfkilled.Tosummarize,mycoherbicidesarefungilivingbiological ,"| organismsthatactthroughthechemicalstheysecrete. #b     f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS$K$  Inordertoprovidecontext,atthispointitwouldbeusefultotakeaquickcomparative $ lookatthe4$ \ YO s  5   s  s   smethodsusedtoeradicatedrugcrops Z s s  6'Y;Z s s  7 i.݌ %  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS'`"& "<( 4 <DLX<  Thefirstmethodismanual.Inthismethod,plantsareremovedbydestroyingthem '`"  physically,forinstance,pullingthemupbytheroots.Thistechniquehasbeen 'F#! successfullyusedintheUS,andbyUSfundedparapolice,paramilitaryforcesthatI (,$" considertobemercenary,suchasUMOPARandCORAHinBoliviaandPeru )%# respectively.Eventhoughtheactorsinvolvedintheseoperationsmaydisgustusby *%$ havingsoldthemselvestoaforeignpower(inthiscase,theUnitedStates)withanaimto +&%  damagingthewellbeingoftheircompatriots,themanualeradicationtheyperform t,'& causestheleastamountofenvironmentalharm,butexposestheeradicatortothehostility  oflocalfarmers.݌    s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS"r  Thesecondmethodischemical.Achemicalismassproducedinalaboratory,mixedina "r formulationwithotheradditives,andappliedtothetargetmostoftenintheformofa X spray.BelowisabriefseriesofherbicidesusedbytheUSgovernment,startingwiththe > mixturethatwascalled"AgentOrange"andusedinVietnam,andendingwiththe  $ presentdayfavorite,Glyphosatewhichwithotheradditivesisbeingusedtodayto   defoliatewideswathesoftheAmazoninSouthernColombia.݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS, | )  Allofthesechemicalherbicideshaveknowntoxicity,rangingfromthemutagenicand , | carcinogenicbreakdownproductsofAgentOrange,totheeffectsofGlyphosateon b  aquaticlifeandsoilmicroorganisms,nottomentionthecollateraldamagecausedto H  nontargetplantsandanimalsbydrift.Sothesearethetrulychemicalherbicides.u݌ .  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSj g   Belowthem,arethemajorFusariummycotoxins,theactiveingredientsoftheFusarium j  speciesandtheprimarysubjectoftoday'slecture.݌ P  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS,V   Theconceptbehindtheuseoftheseorganismsisthattheirsporesaretobemass , producedinlaboratories;thesearethenappliedoverthetargetspecies,wherethespores  germinate,spreadingtoxicmyceliumthatwillattackthetargets.Theconcept,according  totheproponentsofmycoherbicides,isthatthesefungiarespecificandwillonlyattack  thetargetstheyaredesignedfor,aconceptthathasnotbeensupportedbythescientific t evidence.Also,allowmetoemphasizethatwhilemycoherbicidesareorganisms,living Z entities,theiractivityagainsttheirtargetsismainlychemicalproducedthroughthe @ chemicalstheysynthesize,andtheydonotattackthroughmechanicalmeans.Aboveare &v illustratedthemajorclassesofmycotoxinsfoundinFusarium.V ݌  \ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSE %  Whatdoweknowaboutmycotoxinsingeneral?  %%݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS$t!K&  Most,ifnotallfungiproducemycotoxins.Thesechemicalsmaybepartofadefense $t mechanismfortheorganismormaybeoffensive,orboth.Somewellknownmycotoxins  Z thathavebothdeleteriousandpositiveeffectsarethosefromergot,afungusthatcan @ inhabitrye,whoseinfestationsandcontaminationofbreadhaveledtothepoisoning  & called"St.AnthonysFire,"inwhichlargegroupsofintoxicatedpeoplehavedied,after !  experiencinghallucinosis,andlossoffeelingintheextremities.Thiswasaparticular " problemduringthemiddleagesandwassolvedbyseparatingthepurpleblackfungal # sclerotiafromcerealwhichitwasinhabiting.Infairnesstoergot,Ishouldpointoutthat n$ inthemodernage,mycotoxinsisolatedfromergothaveawiderangeofmedicaluses: T%  ergotaminealleviatesmigraineheadaches,andergonovinehassavedthelivesof :&!! countlesswomenwhohavetakenittocontrolpostpartumhemorrhage.Sofar,thereare  'p"" nosuchpositiveusesofFusariummycotoxins.K&&݌ (V## Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS)$?)$,,  Anotherthingweknowaboutmycotoxinsingeneralisthattheirproductionbyfungiis )$$ verydependentonenvironmentalcircumstancesandavailablenutrientsources.Thus,it x*%% isoftenpossibletotakeafungalstrainthatisknowntoproducehighamountsofagiven ^+&& mycotoxin,cultivateitonagivenmedia,andfindnodetectablemycotoxins.The D,'' oppositeisalsotrue.Somefungithatproducesmallamountsofmycotoxinsinthewild *-z(( canbeinducedtoproducelargeramountsorevendifferentmycotoxinsinthecontrolled  conditionsofalab.Thiscaveatbecomesimportantwhentryingtowadethroughthe  mycotoxicologicalliteratureinwhichatcertaintimesagivenspeciesisolatedbycertain | scientistshavebeenfoundtocontaincompoundX,butotherscientistshaveonlyfound b compoundW,Y,andZ!Asisoftenthecaseinacademicminutiae,andespeciallyinthe H worldofmycology,thesedebatescanragefordecadesuntilonesideortheotherdiesoff.,,,݌ . ~ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS g 1  Fusariummycotoxins: 1M2݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSF  C2  WhatdoweknowaboutFusariummycotoxins?Sofar,Fusariummycotoxinshavehad F  anentirelynegativehistory.Sonegative,infact,thatwhenIwasworkingwith , | mycotoxinsinthe1970sandearly1980s,IwaspermittedtoworkunderDEAlicense b  withpsilocybin,ergotalkaloids,andwithoutanylicensefortheverytoxicAmanita H  toxins,theGABAmimickingmycotoxins,butIwasnotpermittedtoworkwiththe .  Fusariumtoxins.Whynot?TheFusariumtoxinswereconsideredtobeweaponsofwar!2u3݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSP M v6  AndwhatdoweknowofFusariumasagenus?Thefirstwrittendescriptionofa P  FusariumrotofcorncomesfromaSpanishfriarinMexicoduringthe1600s.The 6 botanistLinkfirstdescribedthegenusin1809.Fusariumbecameassociatedwiththerot l ofstoredpotatoesbyGermanscientistsinthe1850s.However,thisshouldnottobe R confusedwithanotherrotoflivingtuberscausedbyyetanotherspeciesoffungus, 8 Phytopthera,thefungusthatcausedthegreatIrishpotatofamineduringthe1840s.v66݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSZW9  Inthe1890s,therewerereportsofhorses,cows,andpigslosinghairandhoovesafter Z eatingFusariuminfectedgraininNebraska.Thiswasthefirstreportofthetoxicityof @ thespecies.VariousspeciesofFusariawerethenshowntoattackmanycrops,including &v cotton,banana,sugarcane,andcereals,andevenhumans.9o:݌  \ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSE<  Also,inthistimeframe,in1916,thefirstreportofFusariuminfection(Fusariosis)in  humanswaspublishedinanArgentinemedicaljournal,inwhichapatientsufferedfrom ~ Fusariosisofthenose,apparentlywithasymptomologyoftheprotrusionthatemulated d syphilis!<=݌ J Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS & >  4%YO s  5   s  s  _ s ?tof s s  __6?Y?tof s s  7?_ԁDuringthelastyearsoftheSecondWorldWaruntil1949,somethingsomethingtruly  & tragichappened.󀄀aFusariumsporotrichiodesinfestationofoverwinteredgraincaused !  the4&YO s  5   s  s   sdeathofhundredsofthousandsofpeopleinthe_USSR .Btof s s  __6AYAtof s s  7B_Ԁaftertheyatecontaminated " bread.ThisfocusedresearchonthemycotoxicologyofFusariumspecies.Muchlater,it # wasdeterminedthataseriesofchemicalscalledquinones,specificallythetrichothecene n$ mycotoxinsweremainlyresponsible;theseareaseriesofhighlystablecompoundsthat, T%  unlikemanyothers,arenotdegradedbyheat,suchastheheatusedinbakingbread.>h?݌ :&!! Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS'#s'"XE  Thetrichothecenesweresonamedbecausetheyhadbeenfirstisolatedfromthe '#" morphologicallysimilargenusTrichothecium.Trichothecenemycotoxinsandtheir (## analogshavebeendetectedinallmembersoftheFusariumgenus,includingFusarium )$$ oxysporum,aswellasotherrelatedgenera.EFF݌ x*%% Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS,T'+'FH  Duringthe1950s,Sovietscientistsstudiedthecausesoftheepidemicthathadkilledoff ,T'& somanyoftheircompatriots.Theresultsofsomeofthisworkwerepublishedin1958in ,:('  4'unYO s  5   s  s   sSoilMicroorganismsandHigher_Plants  Jtof s s  __6IYItof s s  7unJ_ԀbyN.A.Krasil'nikov,oftheSovietAcademy  ofSciences.ThiswastranslatedintoEnglishbytheIsraelProgramforScientific  Translationsin1961.Inthiswork,KrasilnikovshowedthattheFusariummycotoxins | werenotonlytheagentsresponsiblefortheRussianepidemic,butthatwhereverlarge b amountsofFusariumandhenceits4(unYO s  5   s  s   smycotoxinshadbeenfoundinthe_soil XMtof s s  __6LYMtof s s  7un>M,_Ԁsubsequent H plantingswouldyieldpoorornoresults.Inotherwords,besidespoisoninghumanswho . ~ atetheinfectedgrain,themycotoxinsalsocontaminatedthesoil.Andsincemanyof  d thesetoxinsarenotverywatersoluble,andarenotsubstantiallywashedawaybyrain  J water,theycankeepthegroundpoisonedforyears.FHH݌  0 Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSl  iP  Bytheearly1960's,duetotheinterestinthechemicalwarfarepotentialof l   trichothecenes,theUSmilitaryandothersstartedtoinvestigatethetoxinsofFusarium. R  They_  s   spublished_Ԁtheresultsoftheir_investigations Rtof s s  _Ԁintothetrichothecenemycotoxins,often 8  outsidenormalchannelsofthescientificliterature.P Q݌ n  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS W S  WecanseethatUSgovernmentcontractedscientistsfirstrepeatedtheSovietwork   (4)unYO s  5   s  s   sArmyBiologicalLabs_ԄTupenevich )Utof s s  __6TYTtof s s  7unU);_Ԁdiddetection,analysis,anddecontaminationwork   (4*unYO s  5   s  s   sArmyArmamentResearchandDevelopment_Command Vtof s s  __6VYVtof s s  7unV);_Ԁappliedtrichothecenesto v variousmammals'skins(4+un YO s  5   s  s   sArmyMedicalResearchInstituteofInfectious_Diseases Xtof s s  __6{XYXtof s s  7unUX);_ \ researchedprotectionagainsttheminbiologicalorchemicalwarfare(4,unYO s  5   s  s   sNationalResearch B _Council Ztof s s  __6uZYZ s s  7unVZ);_Ԁmeasuredtrichotheceneinduced"deepnecroticulcers"onratskin(4-un'YO s  5   s  s   sMaterials (x ResearchLab_Australia \ s s  __6O\Yc\ s s  7un \);_ԀdeterminedtheLC50's(theLethalConcentrationinthe ^ atmosphereatwhich50%ofthetestedanimalsdie)oftrichothecenesinaerosolsinmice D (4.unYO s  5   s  s   sFt._Detrick  _ s s  __6^Y^ s s  7un ^);_Ԁnotedtrichothecenelivertoxicity(4/unYO s  5   s  s   sFt._Detrick ` s s  __6G`Y[` s s  7uni`);_Ԁdeterminedhowtoapplyit * indrinkingwater(40un YO s  5   s  s   sLawrenceLivermoreNational_Lab Zb s s  __6aYb s s  7un@b);_Ԁdeterminedgeneralanimal  toxicity(41unYO s  5   s  s  _ sUSAMRDC d s s  __6cYc s s  7un d);_Ԁtrichotheceneantibodyprotection(42un9YO s  5   s  s   sSouthwestFoundationfor  Biomedical_Research e s s  __6SeYge s s  7un e);_Ԁtrichothecenesappliedasaerosols(43unLYO s  5   s  s   sFt._Detrick }g s s  __6!gY5g s s  7uncg);_Ԁdosedmonkeys  (44unYO s  5   s  s   sFt._Detrick i s s  __6hYh s s  7un h);_Ԁdeterminedtrichotheceneantibodies(45unYO s  5   s  s   sVestar_Research j s s  __6SjYgj s s  7unj);_Ԁand,anenzyme r immunoassayfortrichothecenes(46unsYO s  5   s  s   sBiometric_systems kl s s  __6lY#l s s  7unBQl). _ԁIamdetailingthis,becauseIwant X toshowbeyondanyreasonabledoubtthat47un8YO s  5   s  s  _ sFusarium Pn s s  __6mYn s s  7unB6n_Ԁ48untYO s  5   s  s   sanditsmycotoxinshavebeenlong > knownfortheir_toxicity o s s  __6goY{o s s  7unQ o_ԀandthereisaknownrelationshipbetweenFusariumand $t biologicalor49un YO s  5   s  s   schemical_warfare q s s  __6|qYq s s  7unsq_Ԁthelatterusingcompoundsextractedfromthegenus. SFT݌  Z Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS!C!s  So,howdidFusarium,withsuchaknownhistoryoftoxicitycometobeproposedfora ! massiveapplicationthroughouttheAmazonbasinbyUSgovernmentrepresentatives?st݌ |" Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS$X#su  4:unYO s  5   s  s   sIn1964,acocawiltepidemicbrokeoutintheCocaCocacocaresearchplantationona $X  Hawaiian_Island iv s s  __6 vY!v s s  7 Ov._ԁDuringthistime,deadplantswereremovedfromthefieldand $> ! immediatelyreplacedwithhealthyseedsorseedlings.Manyyearslater,inthe1980's %$!" Fusariumoxysporumwasidentifiedasthewiltorganism.Itsdispersalthroughoutthe & "# researchplotseventuallyresultedintheterminationofthebreedingproject.suu݌ '"$ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS,)|$()$y  Duringthe1970s,Iwasluckyenoughtohavehadtheopportunitytoworkwith4;YO s  5   s  s   sTim ,)|$% _Plowman "{ s s  __6zYz s s  7{_ԀwhenhewasstillatHarvard.Dr.PlowmaneventuallywrotetheMonographon *b%& thegenusErythroxylum,thegenustowhichcocabelongs.yYz݌ *H&' Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  SBecausehewasontopofcocaresearch,Plowmanknew,ofcourse,abouttheproblemsin 1,'( Hawaii,andhypothesizedthatthediseasewasfungalinorigin.But,hewantedtoknow -g() ifthediseasewascausedbyacontaminantontheseedsandseedlingsbroughtinfrom  LatinAmerica,orwasitsomethingthatwasendemictoHawaiiandthenmutated  changedhostsandstartedtochewonCocaColascocaplants.Atthetime,Plowmanwas | sendingseedsandseedlingsfromLatinAmericatorestocktheplantation.In1974,he b divertedtomesomeofthesameseedsandseedlingsthatweretobesenttoHawaiifor H cultivation. . ~ B  ԍ̎      C    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSg  d S  Plowmandidthistodetermine if theseedsandseedlingsdevelopedthesamecocawilt g  diseasewhengrowninotherplacesbesidesHawaii.Theydidnot.Alloftheseedsand M  seedlingsgrewtomaturityintheSanFranciscoBayAreaandotherplaceswhereother 3  researchersweregrowingtheseseedsandseedlings.Thedideaseonlyshowedupin  i  Hawaii.M݌  O  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  SBaseduponthefactthatalloftheseedsandseedlingsgrowninHawaiibecame 8  contaminatedandwilted,PlowmanhypothesizedthatthefungusinHawaiiwas n  indigenoustoHawaiiandhadmerelymutatedtoattackcoca,andwasnotbroughtinwith T  theseedlings,assomeresearchersstillallegetoday. :    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS#s  S*  ThereasonthatthisisimportantisthatproponentsofFusariumliketobelievethatthe #s diseasewasPeruvianinoriginthatitcameontheseedstoHawaiiandtherefore  Y couldbereappliedintheAmazonbasinasa"natural,local"disease,thuscircumventing ? anyargumentsthatitsimportationfromtheUSwouldbeinviolationoflawsregulating % theimportationofpathogens.*݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSGD"  Alsointhemid1970sintheBayArea,4<ZYO s  5   s  s   sA.H.McCainandD.C._Hildebrand ? s s  __6Y s s  7J%_ԀofU.C. G BerkeleywereworkingwithanotherstrainofFusariumoxysporumasamycoherbicide -} againstCannabisfundedbytheDEA.Andindeed,atthetimetherewasspeculationin c botanicalandmycologicalcirclesthatFusariumoxysporumwasalsoresponsibleforthe I epidemicinHawaii.TheCannabisworkprovedtobeinconclusive,andbecauseofthe / Paraquatscareatthetimetheworkwasphasedout,onlytobetakenuplaterbyother  scientists."݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS74+  Althoughtheydenyit,by1983atthelatest,theCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)was 7 fundingresearchonFusariumandcoca,inbothHawaiiandPeru.CIAcontracted  m scientistsisolatedFusariumoxysporumfromcocainHawaii.Andtheywerealso !S workingwiththeHawaiianFusariuminPeru.Whatexactlytheyweredoing?Wedonot !9 know.TheCIAhasnotbeenforthcoming,eitherthroughtheFOIAorduringinterviews " oftheirpressofficers,butluckilypersonnelfromotheruSGentitieshavebeenquite #  forthcoming.+݌ $! Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS'&w!%$!  4=YO s  5   s  s   sIn_1984  s s  __6[Yo s s  7E,_ԀayearafterCIAhadstartedfundingresearchinHawaii,aFusariumepidemicof '&w!" cocastartedinPeru,accordingtoDavidSands,thescientistwholaterrepeatedtheCIAs  ']"# clandestineworkopenlyfortheAgriculturalResearchServiceoftheUSDA[photo]. 'C#$ SandsandotherssaythattheepidemicinPeruwas"natural."Again,theveryyearafter ()$% mysourcesplacetheCIApaidscientistswithFusariumandcocainHawaiiandPeru,an )%& epidemicstartsintheHuallagaValley!Anamazingcoincidence!<݌ *%' Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS1,'+.'  By1986,theAgriculturalResearchServiceoftheUSDAwasopenlydeveloping 1,'( biologicalagentstokillcoca,includingmothsandfungus.TheUSDA/ARSprogramwas -g() torepeattheclandestineworkoftheCIA,"legitimizing"itsothatitwouldnolongerbe  consideredclandestine,andcouldbeopenlyCongressionallyfundedinthefuture.Other,  stillclandestineworkwasbeingdonebyDOEinWashingtonState.&݌ | Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSX  By1987,thefirstPeruvianpressreportsdocumentedthatsomethingwasattackingthe X cocaintheUpperHuallagaValley.Whatitwas,theydidnotknowatthetime.݌ > Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSz ' ws  Alsoin1987,USDA/ARStookovertheHawaiiansite.Duringthenextyear,The z  scientistSandsisolatedastrainofFusariumoxysporumwhichhecalled"4>YO s  5   s  s   sEN_Ԅ4  s s  __6Yӛ s s  7"_ԀfromE. `  novogranatensegrowinginHawaii.Thefactthatitwasfirstisolatedfromaspeciesother F  thanErythroxylumcocaillustratessomeoftheproblemsofmycoherbicideselectivity. , | Accordingtotheirproponents,mycoherbicidalstrains,or"formaespecialis"ofFusarium b  oxysporumwillonlyattackcertainspeciesofplants,andthisiscitedusedas"evidence" H  oftheirsafety,althoughinBritishstudiesusingthesamestrainEN4,itattacked4?XYO s  5   s  s   sother .  speciesofplantsquiteunrelatedto_coca  s s  __6dYx s s  7W._ԁs݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSP M   BecausethisstrainwasisolatedfromE.novogranatenseandnotE.coca,somescientists P  developedanentirelynovelandunheardofconceptbasedentirelyonwishfulthinking:to 6 wit,thatthismycoherbicideis"4@YO s  5   s  s   sgenus_specific  s s  __6&Y: s s  7Kh,"_Ԁinsteadof"speciesspecific."However, l thereareovertwohundredspeciesofcocaatrisk,andoftheseonlyfourproducecocaine R inamountslargeenoughforextraction.Someoftheseotherspecieshavemedicinaland 8 otheruses.Thus,bythescientistsown"genusspecific"definition,theEN4strain  wouldalsoattackallofthese!So,itcouldnotbeconsideredtobesospecific!݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS@=  By1989,thescientistsresearchingFusariumknewabouttheproblemofFusariumin @ immunocompromisedsubjects.InalettertoDEAonMarch10,1989,oneofthemstates: &v "4A.YO s  5   s  s   sthisfungusisonlyaprobleminimmunocompromised_patients.  s s  __6^Yr s s  7 "_ԀFusarium,notjustthe  \ mycotoxinsitproducescanbeverydangerousandinfectimmunocompromised B animals,includinghumans.Andhowdowedefine"immunocompromised?"AIDS ( patients,certainly,butalsoundernourishedpeople,evenpeoplewithverybadcolds,4B YO s  5   s  s   sand  definitelypeoplefleeingenemiesinawartheColombian_situation  s s  __6HY\ s s  7 +._ԀAllofthesecould  riskbecominginfectedifsaturatedwiththeconstantlymutatingfungusunderthose  conditions.Eveninfirstworldhospitals,immunocompromisedpatientswithFusarium p  infectionshavealessthan4C FYO s  5   s  s   s50%chanceof_survival  s s  __6&Y: s s  7 h._ԀOnemedicalpaperreads:"4D YO s  5   s  s  _ sFusarium  s s  __6¯Y֯ s s  7 !_ V! 4E YO s  5   s  s   sinthefoot:Removethe_foot!  s s  __6IY] s s  7 "_a݌ <" Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  SFromMarchtoOctober,1989,thecounternarcotics"FireBase"withitsairstripatSanta u# LucawasbuiltinthePeruvianUpperHuallagaValley,allowingentryoflargeresupply [$  aircraft.USfundedantidrugoperationshadbeenpreviouslybasedinthetownofTingo A% ! Mara,inthesouthernpartoftheUpperHuallagaValleyorpossiblythroughalarge '&w!" PalmOilplantationnearTocache.Atthesametime,theUSstartedachemicalherbicide  ']"# testinthesamegeneralarea,workingwiththechemicalherbicides4F YO s  5   s  s   sTebuthiuronand 'C#$ _Hexazinone be s s  __6Yɵbe s s  7 ,_Ԁandperhapsotherthings.Theseherbicidesweresprayedfromplaneswith ()$% accompanyinghelicopters.Severalchemicalherbicideskilloffcertainfungithatkeep )%& pathogenicfungilikeFusariumincheck.Sotheapplicationofthesechemicalherbicides *%' wouldhavehelpedthespreadoftheFusariumepidemic. +&( |(,T|Dl 4\$ L t  < d  , T |   f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS,(q,' Sf  By1989,Peruviancampesinosbegancomplainingabouthelicoptersandplanesspraying ,() something,afterwhichtheircropsdie.Thesecomplaintscontinuetothepresent.This -(* wasnotunnoticedbytheUSEmbassyinLima.Manyofthesecomplaintsendedupas  reportscabledfromtheUSEmbassytoWashington,DC.Herearesomeexamples:f݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS"r X X|4(4\$ L t  < d  , T |  D l 4 \ $L(  1990"INTHELASTWEEKREPORTSHAVEBEENCIRCULATING "r OFAGREENFUNGUSATTACKINGPLANTS(COCAINCLUDED) X INTHEUHV.WEHAVEBEENTOLDTHATTHEU.S.ISBEING > FINGEREDASTHECULPRITINSOMECIRCLES.MOREONTHIS  $ LATER.."1990LIMA18575DOS/JB8݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSF  C  1993InadebriefingoftheUSfundedPeruvianNationalCoordinatorfor F  HumanRights(Coordinadora)abouttheir1993AnnualTriptoPerus , | HuallagaValleyJungleRegion"THEDELEGATIONWASSTRUCK, b  HOWEVER,BYTHEDEVASTATIONCAUSEDBYTHEFUNGUS H  PLAGUETHATISWITHERINGCOCACROPS.THEYWERE .  ASSAILEDATALMOSTEVERYSTOPWITHACCOUNTSOFU.S.   DEAAIRPLANESSPREADING"FUNGUSPODS"OVERTHECOCA   FIELDS....93LIMA08060DOS/JB.݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSlo  1996February1996:APeruMonthlyNarcoticsReportobtainedthrough l theFreedomofInformationAct,undertheheading"PlantDisease R AttacksCoca,"states:Meanwhile,reportedly3000farmersinthe 8 TingoMariaandLeonicioPradoarea,...havehadtoscratchfor  othermeansofearningaliving,includingpanningforgold,  whenaplantdisease,"secaseca",whichhadpreviouslyattacked  cocaplantsbrokeoutagaininalternatecropsplantedin  formercocabeds.[StateDepartmentJBFOIAresponse#199804417]o݌ f Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  X X|(,T|Dl 4\$ L t  < d  , T | 44(  f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSB  Lastsummer,mycolleague,investigativereporterandlongtimeresidentofLima,Peru, B SharonStevensonandIwenttotheHuallagatoinvestigatethesereports.Shehadwritten ( thefirstarticleonthesereportsfortheMiamiHeraldin1991,breakingnewground.  WhereverwewentintheHuallaga,wewereimmediatelybarragedwithdozensofreports  ofhelicopterssprayingcocafields,atwhichpoint,cocaandneighboringplantsdied.  Thereweresomanyreports,thatthishadtobetrue,ordidit?8݌ p  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS!L!6  Iwasntsosure.Inthe1980sandearly1990s,Ihadspentsixyearscoveringthe !L Salvadoranconflict.Manyeyewitnessreportsconcerningaviationhadprovedtobe "2 untruethere.OneverygoodexampleisthatoftheA37planethatisfittedwithbombs # andmultibarrelled"miniguns"thatfireextremelyrapidly,andmakeadistinctivenoise $  likeawoundedcowwailing.InElSalvadortheseplanesusedtodivefiringtheir % ! minigunsatagiventarget.However,inspiteofthis,manypeasantsusedtobelievethat z&!" theplanesmachinegunsextrudedfromitsrear.Thatiswhy,theyreasoned,thatone `'"# heardthenoiseofthemachinegunsfiringaftertheplanehadpulledoutofitsdiveand F(#$ wasswoopingupwards.Deadwrong!Therealreasonwasthatsoundtravelsmoreslowly ,)|$% thanlight,andwhattheyperceivedwasanillusion!Thiscaveatwasstronglyinmind *b%& whenanalyzingthePeruvianHuallagasituation.6݌ *H&' Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS,'1,'  Reportsofhelicopterssprayingawhitishtannishbrownishdustwhenhoveringovercoca ,'( fieldswereveryinterestinginlightofmySalvadoranexperience.ItistruethatCORAH, j-() theUSfunded,practicallymercenary,anticocaandpoppypolicewouldoftensurveil  cocafieldsfromhelicoptersbyhoveringoverthefields.Thiswouldraisemuchdustand  detritus,simulatingwhatappearedtopeasantsasspraying.Noneofthepeasants | describedhelicopterswithfixedsprayingdeviceshangingbelowthem,andmanystated b thattheythoughtpeopleinsidethehelicoptersweremanuallythrowingoutsomething H whileithoveredsomethingnobodywoulddowithatoxicherbicide.݌ . ~ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS g   Andalso,inthecaseofPeru,thereHADbeenaUSsprayprogramusingchemical   herbicidesthathadlastedayearinalimitedareaaroundaplacecalled"4G}YO s  5   s  s   sLa_Morada   s s  __6-YA  s s  7o"_Ԁ(4H YO s  5   s  s   ssee   _map   s s  __6Y  s s  75)_ԀintheUpperHuallagaValley.Thisinvolved_  s   sTebuthiuron_ԀandHexazinone_ `  s s  and_Ԁwho   knowswhatelse,butwasnormallyappliedbysmallcropdustingplanes,oftenwhile l   helicoptershoveredprotectingtheperimeters.Thatcouldhaveexplainedsome,butnot R  allofthereports._݌ 8  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS q   Now,infairness,IshouldsaythatmycolleagueSharonStevensonbelieves,asdomany   others,includingPeruviangovernmentofficials,thatanherbicidewasbeingandstillis   beingaeriallysprayedinPeruandthatitwassprayedformanyyears.Peoplewho   believethishavestrongargumentsandaconsiderableamountofasyetunanalyzed v physicalevidence.݌ \ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS8u  MypositionisthatifFusariumwasappliedinPeru,itwasdonesosecretlybytheCIAin 8 theearlyandmid1980's,andhassincespread.Ihavenohardinformationonwhether  otherthingshavebeensprayedsincetheUSsprayingtestprogramceased,but,Imust  recognizethatitispossible.Whiletherearesamplestosubstantiatetheseallegations,  theirclarificationwouldrequirehugegrantsgrantsandalotoftimeinthefield.Suc  workneedstobedone,butforlackoffundingwillprobablynotbedone,theresultbeing f thatwewillneverknow.u݌ L Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS(0  However,thereisnodoubtthattherewasahugeFusariumepidemicintheHuallaga,and ( whateveritssource,andweshouldstudyittodeterminewhatwouldhappenifFusarium  weretobeappliedinotherplaces.WhatarethelessonsoftheHuallagaFusarium  epidemic?0݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS!f   Thefirstlessonisabout"nonselectivity".WeheardrepeatedlythatwhenFusarium !f attackscoca,italsoattacksotherplants.Themanyreportsofothernearbyplantsbeing !L affectedwereverydisturbing.Thesereportscamefromsomanysources,includingsome "2 verycompetentagronomists,thattheycannotbediscarded.݌ # Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfST% %Q ,  AfterthePeruvianepidemic,almosteverybodyreportedwhatIcallthe"sicksoil T%  syndrome".Farmersandagronomistssaidthatthesoilsimplydidnotproducelikeitused :&!! to,thatitwas"poisoned".ThisisveryreminiscentofwhattheSovietscientist  'p"" KrasilnikovreportedinthesoilsaftertheRussianFusariumepidemic,andmaybedue (V## toanexcessiveamountof4I/YO s  5   s  s   sresidualmycotoxinsfromthe_epidemic   s s  __6Y  s s  7s._ԁThesemaytake (<$$ severalyearstodissipate.,݌ )"%% Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS^+& +[&  Duringthelate1980s,PeruvianinvestigatorEnriqueArvalofinisheda6month ^+&& investigationofthefungusfortheUpperHuallagaAgrarianCooperativeinUchiza,and D,'' lateraseriesofotherresearchfundedbyUSDAandthe"Peruvian"governmentagency, *-z(( CORAH(actuallycompletelybeholdentotheUS). HewrotethattheHuallagaFusarium  attackedupto70%ofthecocaplotsinsomeareas.Healsonotedthatitattackedother  plants.Heandhiscolleaguesfollowedtheepidemicscourse,andworkedrather | secretivelyattheJungleUniversityinTingoMara,Peru,whicheventuallyledtohim b beingrunoutoftown,chargedbythelocalfarmerswithspreadingtheepidemic,and H rescuedbytheUSEmbassy,whichprovidedaplaneandpaidformovingexpenses.I݌ . ~ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS g z  OneofthemoreinterestingexperimentsthattheArvaloteamdid,hisformerstudent   andcolleagueOscarCabezastoldus, wastoextractFusariummycotoxinsasafraction   fromthecocakillingstrainofFusariumoxysporumandapplytheseindifferentdosage   levelstovariousplants,cocaandnoncoca.Asalessoninthepotencyofthese l   mycotoxins,alloftheplantsthatreceivedthisaqueousmycotoxinfractiondied,proving R  thattheFusariummycotoxinsfromatleastoneofthecocakillingstrainsarenon 8  specifictheywillkillorimpedethegrowthofmanyplants,notjustthetargetplant. n  Apparently,USDA,whichhadbeenfundinghim,showednointerestinpublishingthis T  data.z݌ :  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSv#s  OnJune2,1991,the4J YO s  5   s  s   sMiami_Herald  s s  __6Y s s  7_ԀpublishedSharonStevenson'sarticleentitled:"Peru v farmersblameU.S.forcocakillingfungus."ThiswasthefirstarticleinthenonPeruvian \ pressontheissueofFusariuminPeru.p݌ B Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS{  ACongressionaldocumenttitledthe"PotentialforBiologicalControlofCoca"was  printedinNovemberof1991.Togivesomeideaofthepoliticsoftheresearchers,Dr.  DavidRosen,ProfofEntomology,oftheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem,Israelargues:݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS&v#  "Finally,effortsshouldbemadetopersuadelocalpopulationstoabandoncocachewing &v asawayoflife."ThisanticocaattitudeonthepartofUS,British,andIsraeli  \ researchers,andgovernmentagentsiscorrectlyperceivedasculturalgenocideby B Andeanresidents.Isthistherealendgoalofthesegovernments,includingours?6݌ ( Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSda^  Inthespringof1998,the4K YO s  5   s  s   sDrugWar'sFungal_Solution r s s  __6Y* s s  7X_4LYO s  5   s  s  _ s?  s s  __6Y s s  7<_ԀwaspublishedbyJimHogshire d inCovertActionQuarterly.ThisgroundbreakingarticlefromCAQ(editedbySanho J Tree)wasconsideredsuchathreattotheestablishedorderthatONDCPgaveDavid 0  Sandsacopy,andSandswroteuparejoindertoit,whichtheONDCPcirculated.While !f theHogshirearticlewasmistakenaboutageneticallyengineeredfungalproduct,itwas !L correctabouttheintentoftheUSgovernmentsplanstousemycoherbicides.^݌ "2 Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSn$$k  1998broughtthepassageofSenatebillS.2522,theWesternHemisphereDrug n$ EliminationAct,authorizing$23millionforthreeyear"MasterPlanforMycoherbicides T%  toControlNarcoticCrops."Ayearlater,"PlanColombia"isframed,largelythrough :&!! StateDepartmentresponsetothe4MgYO s  5   s  s   smanylettersfromtheRightontheHilltothe  'p"" _Executive  s s  __6Y s s  7ox._ԀThereisnoevidenceforthemythbeingfoistedbytheStateDepartmentthat (V## PlanColombiawasColombianinorigin.AnintegralpartofPlanColombiaasitsailed (<$$ throughCongresswasthattheColombianswouldusemycoherbicides,specifically )"%% Fusariumagainstthiecocacrops.Thiswasinextricablytiedto$1.6billioninemergency *&& bailoutfundsforthe"PlanColombia"antidrug/counterinsurgencystrategy.Itwasa +&'  simpledeal:ColombiausesmycoherbicidesandwouldberewardedwithUSfunds.݌ ,'( Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSS   TheUSscientist,Dr.DavidSands,whohadearlierisolatedstrainEN4fromcocaforthe S  USDA,andnowwithhisowncompany,Ag/BioCon,witharetired4NoxIYO s  5   s  s   sAirForce_General   s s  __6k Y  s s  7ox _Ԁat 9 thehelm,startedtosellselectedCongressmentheconceptofusinghiscompanyto  supplytheFusariumforColombia.NodoubttheseveralmilliondollarsthatPlan  Colombiawasofferingtopayforthemycoherbicidedevelopmentandapplicationwasa  factorinthecreationofthiscompany.  ݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS ]    Inthespringof1999,theUSdecidedthatitwouldlookbetterforUSpolicyifthe4OoxYO s  5   s  s   sUN  ] handledthemycoherbicideprogramin_Colombia  s s  __6Y s s  7oxE._ԀThefirstUSapproachwasthroughthe  C UnitedNationsDrugControlProgram(UNDCP)inwhich4Pox\YO s  5   s  s   stheygotUNDCPtoproposea  ) projecttoestablisharesearch_station 8 s s  __6Y s s  7oxi_Ԁtoconductfieldtrialsforeventuallargescale    applicationofthefungus.AlthoughtheUNrepresentativeinColombia,KlausNyholm,   saidthedraftagreementwas"notwhattheColombianswant...ItwasanAmerican   interest...itwasn'tmyidea,"itcertainlyreflectedwhattheUSStateDepartmentwanted. q  Theproposedagreementturnedoverresultsofatleast12yearsofmycoherbicide W  researchbytheUSDepartmentofAgriculture'sAgriculturalResearchService(ARS)and =  theagreementopenlytookpoliticalcoverundertheUNumbrella.AMay1999 Action #s RequestbySecretaryofStateMadeleineAlbrightpushedtheUNDCPtogetother  Y countriestoanteup"inordertoavoidaperceptionthatthisissolelya[USgovernment] ? initiative."Atthesametime,therewasanequallyunsuccessfulUSploytoattemptto % foistalargepartofPlanColombiafundingontheEuropeanCommunityseveralmonths   later. L݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS-}*{  ThereweremanytroublingaspectstotheUNproposal.ItmaintainedthatSandsstrain -} ofEN4alreadyexistedinColombia,whichisconvenientsinceintroducingaforeign c pathogentothecountrycouldpresentaproblemunderinternationallaw.UN I representativeNyholm,however,saidtherewasnoEN4inColombia,andtherewasno / evidenceofanyFusariumepidemiconcocathere.TheUNproposaladmittedthatfungus  development,largescaleproduction,storage,andapplicationtechniquesforFusarium  alreadyexisted;andnow,itsaid,allthatwasneededwere"largescale"fieldtrialsto  comparedifferentformulationsandapplicationrates,andassesstheenvironmental w impact.Yetitdidn'tspecifyhowtheywouldhavemeasuredthesafetyofthesetrials. ]  Nowhereinthedraftisanynoninvolvedmonitorestablishedtooverseeresearchand C! developmentinColombia.{݌ )"y Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS#b#  ThisisnosmallmatterinColombia,hometotheworld'ssecondmostdiversebiosystem #  Єonethatisuniquelyvulnerabletothepotentialthreatposedbythemassivesprayingof $! atoxic,mutativefungusinvastswathesofjunglecharacterizedbyverysensitiveand % " poorsoil.P݌ g&!# Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS'C#'"?  Inthespringandsummerof1999,SandsreceivednationwideattentionforAg/BioCon, 'C#$ whenhealongwithColonelJimMcDonough,aformertopaidetoUSdrugczar ()$% GeneralMcCaffrey,whohadtakenanewjobasFlorida'stopdrugofficialtriedtosell )%& anotherstrainofFusariumoxysporumtocontrolFlorida'sburgeoningmarijuana *%' industry.?݌ +&( Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  Theconceptwasnotwellreceived,asFloridahasahistoryofimportedorganismstaking ,() overtheenvironment.DavidStruhs,theheadofFlorida'sDepartmentofEnvironmental -(* Protection,reactedwithastronglycautionarylettersaying:"Fusariumspeciesare  capableofevolvingrapidly...Mutagenicityisbyfarthemostdisturbingfactorin  attemptingtouseaFusariumspeciesasabioherbicide.Itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,to | controlthespreadofFusariumspecies.Themutatedfungicancausediseaseinalarge b numberofcrops,includingtomatoes,peppers,flowers,cornandvines,andarenormally H consideredathreattofarmersasapest,ratherthanasapesticide.Fusariumspeciesare . ~ moreactiveinwarmsoilsandcanstayresidentinthesoilforyears.Theirlongevityand  d enhancedactivityunderFloridaconditionsareofconcern,asthiscouldleadtoan  J increasedriskofmutagenicity."  0   f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSl  i&  Anditisthisabilitytomutatethatcausessomuchconcern.Promotersofmycoherbicides l   statethataformaspecialis󀄀oraspecialformofthefunguscanonlyattackacertain R  speciesorinthecaseofthisone,acertaingenus.But,hereistherub:ifthesameforma 8  specialisorganismmutatesandattacksanotherspeciesorgenus,itbecomesanother n  formaspecialis(itsnamejustchanges),eventhoughitisthesameorganism,just T  attackingadifferentplant.&'݌ :  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSv#s)  Andthereisanotherruleofthumbinmycologythatshouldbetakenintoaccountby v thosewhowouldconsiderapplyingmassivedosesofFusariumorothermycoherbicides \ towideswathesofourplanet:themorefungalmaterialapplied,thegreaterthelevelof B mutation!)_*݌ (x Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSaL,  Tobefair,Ishouldalsomentionthatmostmutationsgonowheretheyaredeadends,it  isonlythe.1%thatareaggressivethatneedconcernus.L,,݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS&v# .  Butitisnotonlymutationthatisaproblem.FusariumcanabsorbsnippetsofDNAfrom &v otherorganisms.Thesearecalledtransposonsandcouldbeusedtosynthesizenovel  \ mycotoxinsorunpredictablychangethebehaviorofthefungus. ..݌ B Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS~+{?0  HavingbeenrebuffedbythestateofFloridamainlyonthemutationissuefailingeven ~ toconvincethestateauthoritiestoinitiateasimpleexperimentinaquarantinedtestsite, d Dr.SandsandhissmallcompanyoftwoapparentlysethissightsonColombia.?00݌ J Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS & {2  Throughhis4Sed YO s  5   s  s   sCongressional_connections }3and s s  __6!3Y53and s s  7edDc3,_ԀDr.SandsarrangedaJanuary,2000facetoface  & meetingwithPresidentAndrsPastranainWashington.Justashehadsoldtheconceptto !  the4TedYO s  5   s  s  _ sCongressmen 5and s s  __6X5Yl5and s s  7edE 5_Ԁ!whoseaidescouldnotcorrectlypronouncetheword"mycoherbicide" " anddefinitelynot"Fusariumoxysporum"!hesoldPastranaonit.Pastranathensetup # meetingstoclinchthedealinColombia.{22݌ n$ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS%J!% (68  ColombianEnvironmentalViceMinisterClaudiaMartnezwasorderedbythe %J!  ColombianambassadorinWashingtontoreceiveDr.Sands.InColombia,Sandsseemed &0"! tobemoreappropriatelyclassifiedasafreelancebusinessman,hawkinghiscompany's '#" versionofafullydevelopedfungusfieldreadyfor"4Ued9YO s  5   s  s   sprecisiondeliveryfromhigh (## _altitude :and s s  __6P:Yd:and s s  7ed6:"_ԀapplicationbylargeC130cargoplanesasthefollowingillustration,fromhis )$$ literature,shows. 688݌ x*%% Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS,T'+'<  ThisonlyfrightenedtheColombiansmore.Onescientistwhowaspresentatthemeeting ,T'& saidthatthisremindedhimof"Dr.Strangelove."Indeed,whenonelooksatwhatthisis! ,:(' grassseed!onewondershowfarandwidemigratorybirdswoulddistributeit.Birds  migratefromColombiatotheUSthroughthetargetarea.And,whatoftheeffectson  thesebirds?TwoColombianscientistswhoattendedSands'Bogotpresentationsaidhe | firstpresentedhimselfonlyasascientist,notmentioninghiscompanyAg/BioCon.His b goalseemedtobetofindfourhectaresanywhereinColombiatouseforafieldtrial.The H StateDepartmenthereinWashingtonwaslessthanpleasedathisfreelancingasthey . ~ correctlythoughtitwouldblowtheirownUNDCP"cover"program.<c=݌  d Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS M A  IshouldpointoutherethatIhaveaskedUSDAforasampleoftheEN4strainwhich   wastobeusedtoinundatesouthernColombia.USDAwouldnotgiveittome,stating   thatonlyan"institution"couldreceiveit.Ifitissosafe,whycantanyonebeableto l   receiveit?AB݌ R  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS.  C  InMarchof2000,4Vim YO s  5   s  s   sRep.BenjaminGilman,RNY,tackedonan_amendment Eand s s  __6DYDand s s  7imxD_Ԁtothe .  pendingaidbillrequiringPresidentClintontocertifythattheColombiangovernment   "hasagreedtoandisimplementingastrategytoeliminateColombia'stotalcocaand   opiumpoppyproduction"using,amongothermeans"tested,environmentallysafe   mycoherbicides."ArmtwistingbytheUSCongresstomakeColombiausethefungus v evenbeforeithasbeentestedforenvironmentalandhumansafetyraisesthefundamental \ issueofinformedconsentbytheColombianpeople.Theprogramcouldeasilybe B construedashavinganonpeacefulpurposeafterall,thereisawarinColombia,thus (x contraveningtheinternationalBiologicalWeaponsConventionandmorphingitfrom ^ "biocontrol"into"biowarfare."WhileboththeUSandUNstridentlyobjecttothelatter D term,thesecrecysurroundingtheprojectthelackofindependentmonitoringoftheUS * fungusdevelopment,thelackofmediaexposuretotheproject,andtheclassifiednature  ofthedevelopmentprograminitsearlyyearsleaveseriousquestionsunanswered.CxD݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS2/K  WhenSharonStevensonandIvisitedColombiainlateMarchtoearlyApril,2000,the 2 UNproposalhadalreadylandedintheMinistryofEnvironment,whichwastoapprove h itsuse.Atameetingwithrankingofficials,however,itbecameclearthattheMinistry N hadlittleinformationtogooninmakingtheirdecision.Theviceministerofthe 4 environmentandheraides,gatheredaroundtheconferencetable,wereaskingusto  supplythemwithinformation.NeithertheUSgovernmentnortheUNagencypushing   theplanhadgiventheMinistrythedetaileddocumentationavailableonthegenesisand ! developmentofFusariumoxysporumthattheywouldneedtohelpdecideifitwassafeto |" apply.MinistrystafferswerereducedtotryingtocullinformationfromtheInternet. b#  WhattheyhadfoundtherewasevidencethatFusariumoxysporumcouldmutatetoattack H$! otherplantsandcouldbedangeroustoanimalandhumanhealth.K(L݌ .%~ " Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS& "g&!%Q  Inresponsetothepressures,theMinistryofEnvironmentcameupwithaseriesofthree & "# counterproposal,callingforbacktobasicresearchon"nativemicroorganismswith '"$ biocontrolpotential"inthecocazones.Thefinalproposalruledouttheuseofthe (#% unpredictableanddangerousFusariumasabiocontrolagent.AsoneUSGofficialsaid: l)$& "They'lljuststudythewholethingtodeath...Theywon'tcomeupwithanything...atbest, R*%'  somegoodsciencewillcomeoutofit."%QQ݌ 8+&( Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSST  Duringthefirstmonthsof2000,aUSNobellaureate(whohasaskedtoremain S unnamed)wroteBillClintonraisingconcernsabouttherelationshipbetween 9 mycoherbicidesandbiologicalwarfare,anditsimplicationsinForeignPolicy.T U݌    s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS[XV  June,2000:PlanColombiapassesSenate.Houselanguagewinsoutoverthemore [ environmentallyfriendlySenatelanguage.Atthispointitlookslikethemycoherbicide A  programwas"on"forColombia.V1W݌ ' w Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS ` X  But,alsolastJune,mycoherbicideswerethesubjectofaNationalSecurityCouncil   (NSC)meetinginDC,promptedbyalettertoClintonbytheUSNobellaureatewe   mentionedearlier.Concernwasraisedbecausemycoherbicideswouldbeviewedinsome   quartersasbiologicalwarfare,andtherewasfearofretaliation.Notmuchlater,decisions e  weremadetoterminatetheUSpressurefortheFusariumprojectforColombia.X8Y݌ K  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS'  [  TheBBCinterviewedRandBeersandDr.DavidSandshereinWashington,duringmid '  August,2000.HerearesomeselectionsfromtheSandsinterview:[L\݌   Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSIF X X44]  SANDS:ThisfungusistheclosestthingI'veeverseentoasilverbullet... I  Ihaveseenittakeout99%ofplantsinafield.Ithinkthat'sincredibleand / Ithinkpeopleshouldknowthatthistechnologyexists...Thiswouldbea e greenkindofwarfare...]A^݌ K Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS4`  BBC:Okay,butwe'retalkingsemanticshere.Youcallitgreenwarfare.  Otherpeoplecallitbiologicalwarfare.Thatissemanticallycorrect,itis m biologicalwarfare.``݌ S Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS/a  SANDS:Thatcanberight.It'sbiologicalwarfareorgreenwarfare.Ijust / wantyoutounderstandmyopinionisit'sagoodthingifit'sdoneto  eradicatesomethingthattheentireworldfeelsisnoxious.awb݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS74c  BBC:Whathappensifconsentisnotforthcoming...Iputtoyoua 7 hypotheticalyounevergetconsentwhatshouldhappenthen?czd݌ m Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS V e  SANDS:You'resayingthattwocountries[ColombiaandAfghanistan]   thatknowinglyareunleashingachemical,adrug,onourchildren,an ! addictivedrug,thattheyareconsentingtodothatandtheyarenot u" consentingtodobiologicalcontrol,Ithinktheyshouldsufferthe [# consequencesofthatdecision.ef݌ A$ Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS%!z% 1h  BBC:Whichmeansthatweshouldgoinwithoutconsent.1hh݌ %! Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSY'"'V"ui  SANDS:Ithinksomebodyshould.uii݌ Y'" Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS(5$(#j  BBC:Anditshouldbetreatedasanactofcounterterrorism?jk݌ (5$  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSq*%*n%k  SANDS:Wellit'saprettyhighstakesgame.Justgotoanyrehabclinic q*%! andcheckitoutyourself.kil݌ W+&" Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS,3(,'sm  BBC:You'resayingyes?smm݌ ,3(# Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSSn  SANDS:Yes.no݌ S Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    X X44  f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS<o  AnAugust22,memojustifyingPresidentClinton'sgrantofawaiverforthe  congressionalhumanrightsconditions,statedtheUnitedStateswillnotsupporttheuse u ofmycoherbicidesagainsttheColombiancocacropunless"...abroadernationalsecurity [ assessment,includingconsiderationofthepotentialimpactonbiologicalweapons A  proliferationandterrorism,providesasolidfoundationforconcludingthattheuseofthis ' w particulardrugcontroltoolisinournationalinterest..."olp݌  ] Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS F Ls  ReportsofFusariumsprayingemanatingfromtheSucumbosregionofEcuadoronthe   Colombianborderappear,butIinvestigatedthesebytelephoneandlaterbyanonsite   visitanddeterminedthesetobeuntrue,butbasedonrumorsbeingspreadaboutthe e  possibilityofFusariumbeingusedacrosstheborderinColombia.Lss݌ K  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw    f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS'  u  OnSeptember5and6,IwasamemberoftheEcuadorandelegationtotheAndean '  CommitteeofEnvironmentalAuthorities4Q^YO s  5   s(_CAAAM_)6vYOw  s s  7^`AwԀinLima,Peru._CAAAM_Ԁispartof   thestructureofthe_Comunidad_ԀAndina,amultinationalorganizationcomprisedof   Bolivia,Colombia,Ecuador,PeruandVenezuela.Aftertwodaysofconsiderabledebate,  _CAAAM_Ԁdeclaredits"rejectionoftheuseofthefungusFusariumoxysporumasatool o fortheeradicationofillicitcropsintheterritoryoftheMembercountriesoftheAndean U Community."uVv݌ ; Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfStz  Afewdayslater,whenItalkedtoUSofficials,whobroughtupthe_CAAAM_Ԁstatement  intheLaPazUSembassy,theyacknowledgedthatFusariumwasdefinitelynowoffthe  tableforColombiaoranywhereelseintheAmericas. z%{݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSo|  AlsoinLaPaz,Bolivia,inearlySeptember,UNDCPheadPino_Arlacchi_,who,when o interviewedwhilereceivingamedalfromBolivianPresidentBanzer,statedthatthe U FusariummycoherbicideprogramwasoverforLatinAmerica,andthattheUNDCPwas ; nolongerpushingit.HeexplainedthatithadneverbeenonthetableforanyotherSouth ! AmericancountryexceptColombia,whereitwasrejected. |m}݌  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSC @  Epilogue(12/19/2000) ݌ C  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw      f s"XwXX"Xw   sfS!|!L  SincetheDecember8,_2000lecture_,afewrelevanteventshavehappened.Immediately ! afterthelecture,oneoftheattendees,RichardBaumoftheONDCP"SupplyReduction " Office,"respondedtothespeaker.Hesaidthatthemycoherbicideprogramwasnotover, # butwasmerely"onhold."InalectureatSAISatJohnHopkinsUniversityinOctober, $ 2001,a4Wim[YO s  5   s  s   sMr.Brad_Hittle_ԀoftheONDCP   s s  6Y˃  s s  7im ԀalsoindicatedthatONDCPhadnotyetthrownin g%  thetowelontheFusariumissue.Lǁ݌ M&!  Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  Unfortunately,mycoherbicideresearchwaspartofBushsbudgetlastyearalbeita ($" secretpart.NewsweeksMike_Isikoff_Ԁfirstreportedit.Therearethosewhoare )$# suggestingthatasimilarmycoherbicideinvestigatedinUzbekistanshouldbeusedin *%$ Afghanistan. q+&% Buttherestillexistsadangerthatthismaybeused!rather!abused,intheAmazon ,'& basin,withouttheconsentofthoselivingthere. -('   f s"XwXX"Xw   sfSS  3  JeremyBigwood3݌ S Ќ s s  "XwXX"Xw  Annapolis,Maryland, < June7,2002f s@ u  S